Mercurial Hosting > luan
annotate website/src/manual.html.luan @ 1246:299996e03876
clean up http/tools
author | Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com> |
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date | Tue, 17 Jul 2018 15:43:11 -0600 |
parents | 5dbb552075ff |
children | e38f5869e9df |
rev | line source |
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1 local Luan = require "luan:Luan.luan" |
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2 local Io = require "luan:Io.luan" |
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3 local Html = require "luan:Html.luan" |
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4 local Http = require "luan:http/Http.luan" |
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5 local Shared = require "site:/Shared.luan" |
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6 |
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7 |
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8 return function() |
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9 Io.stdout = Http.response.text_writer() |
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10 %> |
1216 | 11 <!doctype html> |
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12 <html> |
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13 <head> |
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14 <title>Luan Reference Manual</title> |
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15 <style> |
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16 @import "/site.css"; |
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17 </style> |
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18 </head> |
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19 <body> |
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20 |
372 | 21 <div container> |
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22 <% Shared.header() %> |
372 | 23 |
24 <h1>Luan Reference Manual</h1> | |
25 | |
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26 <p small> |
372 | 27 Original copyright © 2015 Lua.org, PUC-Rio. |
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28 Freely available under the terms of the |
372 | 29 <a href="http://www.lua.org/license.html">Lua license</a>. |
30 Modified for Luan. | |
31 </p> | |
32 | |
33 <hr/> | |
34 | |
35 <h2>Contents</h2> | |
36 | |
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37 <div contents><a href="#intro">Introduction</a></div> |
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38 |
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39 <div contents> |
373 | 40 <a href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a> |
41 <ul> | |
42 <li><a href="#types">Values and Types</a></li> | |
43 <li><a href="#env">Environments</a></li> | |
44 <li><a href="#error">Error Handling</a></li> | |
45 <li><a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></li> | |
380 | 46 <li><a href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></li> |
47 </ul> | |
48 </div> | |
49 | |
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50 <div contents> |
380 | 51 <a href="#lang">The Language</a> |
52 <ul> | |
53 <li><a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></li> | |
54 <li><a href="#vars">Variables</a></li> | |
389 | 55 <li> |
56 <a href="#stmts">Statements</a> | |
57 <ul> | |
58 <li><a href="#blocks">Blocks</a></li> | |
395 | 59 <li><a href="#chunks">Chunks</a></li> |
60 <li><a href="#assignment">Assignment</a></li> | |
61 <li><a href="#control">Control Structures</a></li> | |
62 <li><a href="#for">For Statement</a></li> | |
63 <li><a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></li> | |
64 <li><a href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></li> | |
465 | 65 <li><a href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></li> |
395 | 66 </ul> |
67 </li> | |
68 <li> | |
69 <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a> | |
70 <ul> | |
71 <li><a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></li> | |
396 | 72 <li><a href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></li> |
73 <li><a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></li> | |
74 <li><a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></li> | |
75 <li><a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></li> | |
76 <li><a href="#length">The Length Operator</a></li> | |
77 <li><a href="#precedence">Precedence</a></li> | |
78 <li><a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></li> | |
417 | 79 <li><a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></li> |
80 <li><a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></li> | |
465 | 81 <li><a href="#template_expr">Template Expressions</a></li> |
389 | 82 </ul> |
83 </li> | |
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84 <li><a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></li> |
373 | 85 </ul> |
86 </div> | |
87 | |
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88 <div contents> |
468 | 89 <a href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a> |
90 <ul> | |
91 <li><a href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></li> | |
470 | 92 <li><a href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></li> |
476 | 93 <li><a href="#package_lib">Modules</a></li> |
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94 <li><a href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></li> |
567 | 95 <li><a href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></li> |
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96 <li><a href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></li> |
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97 <li><a href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></li> |
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98 <li><a href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></li> |
468 | 99 </ul> |
100 </div> | |
101 | |
372 | 102 <hr/> |
103 | |
373 | 104 |
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105 <h2 heading><a name="intro">Introduction</a></h2> |
372 | 106 |
107 <p>Luan is a high level programming language based on <a href="http://www.lua.org">Lua</a>. A great strength of Lua is its simplicity and Luan takes this even further, being even simpler than Lua. The goal is to provide a simple programming language for the casual programmer with as few concepts as possible so that one can quickly learn the language and then easily understand any code written in Luan.</p> | |
108 | |
109 <p>Luan is implemented in Java and is tightly coupled with Java. So it makes a great scripting language for Java programmers.</p> | |
110 | |
111 <p>Unlike Lua which is meant to be embedded, Luan is meant to be a full scripting language. This done not by adding feature to Luan, but rather by providing a complete set of libraries.</p> | |
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112 |
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113 |
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114 <h2 heading><a name="basic">Basic Concepts</a></h2> |
373 | 115 |
116 <p>This section describes the basic concepts of the language.</p> | |
117 | |
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118 <h3 heading><a name="types">Values and Types</a></h3> |
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119 |
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120 <p> |
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121 Luan is a <em>dynamically typed language</em>. |
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122 This means that |
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123 variables do not have types; only values do. |
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124 There are no type definitions in the language. |
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125 All values carry their own type. |
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126 |
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127 |
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128 <p> |
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129 All values in Luan are <em>first-class values</em>. |
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130 This means that all values can be stored in variables, |
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131 passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results. |
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132 |
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133 |
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134 <p> |
373 | 135 There are eight basic types in Luan: |
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136 <em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>, |
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137 <em>string</em>, <em>binary</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>java</em>, |
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138 and <em>table</em>. |
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139 <em>Nil</em> is the type of the value <b>nil</b>, |
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140 whose main property is to be different from any other value; |
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141 it usually represents the absence of a useful value. |
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142 <em>Nil</em> is implemented as the Java value <em>null</em>. |
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143 <em>Boolean</em> is the type of the values <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>. |
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144 <em>Boolean</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Boolean</em>. |
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145 <em>Number</em> represents both |
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146 integer numbers and real (floating-point) numbers. |
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147 <em>Number</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Number</em>. Any Java subclass of <em>Number</em> is allowed and this is invisible to the Luan user. Operations on numbers follow the same rules of |
373 | 148 the underlying Java implementation. |
149 | |
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150 <em>String</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>String</em>. |
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151 <em>Binary</em> is implemented as the Java type <em>byte[]</em>. |
373 | 152 |
153 | |
154 <p> | |
155 Luan can call (and manipulate) functions written in Luan and | |
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156 functions written in Java (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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157 Both are represented by the type <em>function</em>. |
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158 |
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159 |
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160 <p> |
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161 The type <em>java</em> is provided to allow arbitrary Java objects to |
373 | 162 be stored in Luan variables. |
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163 A <em>java</em> value is a Java object that isn't one of the standard Luan types. |
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164 Java values have no predefined operations in Luan, |
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165 except assignment and identity test. |
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166 Java values are useful when Java access is enabled in Luan |
373 | 167 |
168 | |
169 | |
170 <p> | |
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171 The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays, |
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172 that is, arrays that can be indexed not only with numbers, |
373 | 173 but with any Luan value except <b>nil</b>. |
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174 Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>; |
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175 that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>). |
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176 Any key with value <b>nil</b> is not considered part of the table. |
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177 Conversely, any key that is not part of a table has |
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178 an associated value <b>nil</b>. |
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179 |
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180 |
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181 <p> |
373 | 182 Tables are the sole data-structuring mechanism in Luan; |
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183 they can be used to represent ordinary arrays, sequences, |
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184 symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc. |
373 | 185 To represent records, Luan uses the field name as an index. |
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186 The language supports this representation by |
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187 providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>. |
373 | 188 There are several convenient ways to create tables in Luan |
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189 (see <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>). |
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190 |
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191 |
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192 <p> |
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193 We use the term <em>sequence</em> to denote a table where |
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194 the set of all positive numeric keys is equal to {1..<em>n</em>} |
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195 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>, |
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196 which is called the length of the sequence (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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197 |
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198 |
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199 <p> |
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200 Like indices, |
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201 the values of table fields can be of any type. |
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202 In particular, |
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203 because functions are first-class values, |
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204 table fields can contain functions. |
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205 Thus tables can also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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206 |
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207 |
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208 <p> |
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209 The indexing of tables follows |
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210 the definition of raw equality in the language. |
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211 The expressions <code>a[i]</code> and <code>a[j]</code> |
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212 denote the same table element |
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213 if and only if <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> are raw equal |
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214 (that is, equal without metamethods). |
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215 In particular, floats with integral values |
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216 are equal to their respective integers |
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217 (e.g., <code>1.0 == 1</code>). |
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218 |
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219 |
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220 <p> |
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221 Luan values are <em>objects</em>: |
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222 variables do not actually <em>contain</em> values, |
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223 only <em>references</em> to them. |
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224 Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns |
373 | 225 always manipulate references to values; |
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226 these operations do not imply any kind of copy. |
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227 |
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228 |
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229 <p> |
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230 The library function <a href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type</code></a> returns a string describing the type |
478 | 231 of a given value. |
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232 |
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233 |
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234 |
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235 |
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236 |
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237 <h3 heading><a name="env">Environments</a></h3> |
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238 |
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239 <p> |
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240 The environment of a chunk starts with only two local variables: <code><a href="#require">require</a></code> and <code><a href="#java">java</a></code>. These are functions are used to load and access libraries and other modules. All other variables must be added to the environment using <a href="http://localhost:8080/manual.html#local_stmt">local declarations</a>. |
512
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241 |
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242 <p> |
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243 As will be discussed in <a href="#vars">Variables</a> and <a href=#assignment">Assignment</a>, |
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244 any reference to a free name |
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245 (that is, a name not bound to any declaration) <code>var</code> |
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246 can be syntactically translated to <code>_ENV.var</code> if <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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247 |
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248 |
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249 <h3 heading><a name="error">Error Handling</a></h3> |
373 | 250 |
251 <p> | |
252 Luan code can explicitly generate an error by calling the | |
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253 <a href="#Luan.error"><code>error</code></a> function. |
373 | 254 If you need to catch errors in Luan, |
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255 you can use <a href="#Luan.pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> or <a href="#Luan.try"><code>try</code></a> |
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256 to call a given function in <em>protected mode</em>. |
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257 |
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258 |
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259 <p> |
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260 Whenever there is an error, |
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261 an <em>error table</em> |
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262 is propagated with information about the error. |
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263 See <a href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error</code></a>. |
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264 |
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265 |
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266 |
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267 <h3 heading><a name="meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></h3> |
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268 |
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269 <p> |
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270 Every table in Luan can have a <em>metatable</em>. |
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271 This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Luan table |
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272 that defines the behavior of the original value |
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273 under certain special operations. |
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274 You can change several aspects of the behavior |
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275 of operations over a value by setting specific fields in its metatable. |
373 | 276 For instance, when a table is the operand of an addition, |
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277 Luan checks for a function in the field "<code>__add</code>" of the table's metatable. |
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278 If it finds one, |
373 | 279 Luan calls this function to perform the addition. |
280 | |
281 | |
282 <p> | |
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283 The keys in a metatable are derived from the <em>event</em> names; |
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284 the corresponding values are called <ii>metamethods</em>. |
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285 In the previous example, the event is <code>"add"</code> |
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286 and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition. |
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287 |
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288 |
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289 <p> |
373 | 290 You can query the metatable of any table |
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291 using the <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a> function. |
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292 |
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293 |
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294 <p> |
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295 You can replace the metatable of tables |
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296 using the <a href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>set_metatable</code></a> function. |
373 | 297 |
298 | |
299 <p> | |
300 A metatable controls how a table behaves in | |
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301 arithmetic operations, bitwise operations, |
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302 order comparisons, concatenation, length operation, calls, and indexing. |
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303 |
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304 |
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305 <p> |
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306 A detailed list of events controlled by metatables is given next. |
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307 Each operation is identified by its corresponding event name. |
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308 The key for each event is a string with its name prefixed by |
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309 two underscores, '<code>__</code>'; |
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310 for instance, the key for operation "add" is the |
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311 string "<code>__add</code>". |
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312 Note that queries for metamethods are always raw; |
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313 the access to a metamethod does not invoke other metamethods. |
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314 You can emulate how Luan queries a metamethod for an object <code>obj</code> |
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315 with the following code: |
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316 |
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317 <pre> |
373 | 318 raw_get(get_metatable(obj) or {}, "__" .. event_name) |
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319 </pre> |
373 | 320 |
321 <p> | |
322 Here are the events: | |
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323 |
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324 <ul> |
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325 |
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326 <li><p><b>"add": </b> |
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327 the <code>+</code> operation. |
373 | 328 |
329 If any operand for an addition is a table, | |
330 Luan will try to call a metamethod. | |
331 First, Luan will check the first operand (even if it is valid). | |
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332 If that operand does not define a metamethod for the "<code>__add</code>" event, |
373 | 333 then Luan will check the second operand. |
334 If Luan can find a metamethod, | |
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335 it calls the metamethod with the two operands as arguments, |
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336 and the result of the call |
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337 (adjusted to one value) |
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338 is the result of the operation. |
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339 Otherwise, |
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340 it raises an error. |
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341 </li> |
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342 |
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343 <li><p><b>"sub": </b> |
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344 the <code>-</code> operation. |
371
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345 |
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346 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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347 </li> |
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348 |
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349 <li><p><b>"mul": </b> |
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350 the <code>*</code> operation. |
371
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351 |
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352 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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353 </li> |
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354 |
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355 <li><p><b>"div": </b> |
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356 the <code>/</code> operation. |
371
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357 |
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358 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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359 </li> |
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360 |
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361 <li><p><b>"mod": </b> |
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362 the <code>%</code> operation. |
371
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363 |
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364 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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365 </li> |
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366 |
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367 <li><p><b>"pow": </b> |
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368 the <code>^</code> (exponentiation) operation. |
371
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369 |
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370 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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371 </li> |
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372 |
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373 <li><p><b>"unm": </b> |
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374 the <code>-</code> (unary minus) operation. |
371
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375 |
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376 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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377 </li> |
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378 |
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379 <li><p><b>"concat": </b> |
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380 the <code>..</code> (concatenation) operation. |
373 | 381 |
382 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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383 </li> |
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384 |
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385 <li><p><b>"len": </b> |
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386 the <code>#</code> (length) operation. |
373 | 387 |
371
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388 If there is a metamethod, |
373 | 389 Luan calls it with the object as argument, |
371
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390 and the result of the call |
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391 (always adjusted to one value) |
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392 is the result of the operation. |
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393 If there is no metamethod but the object is a table, |
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394 then Luan uses the table length operation (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
373 | 395 Otherwise, Luan raises an error. |
371
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396 </li> |
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397 |
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398 <li><p><b>"eq": </b> |
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399 the <code>==</code> (equal) operation. |
371
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400 |
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401 Behavior similar to the "add" operation, |
373 | 402 except that Luan will try a metamethod only when the values |
403 being compared are both tables | |
371
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404 and they are not primitively equal. |
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405 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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406 </li> |
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407 |
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408 <li><p><b>"lt": </b> |
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409 the <code><</code> (less than) operation. |
373 | 410 |
411 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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412 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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413 </li> |
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414 |
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415 <li><p><b>"le": </b> |
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416 the <code><=</code> (less equal) operation. |
371
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417 |
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418 Unlike other operations, |
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419 The less-equal operation can use two different events. |
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420 First, Luan looks for the "<code>__le</code>" metamethod in both operands, |
371
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421 like in the "lt" operation. |
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422 If it cannot find such a metamethod, |
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423 then it will try the "<code>__lt</code>" event, |
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424 assuming that <code>a <= b</code> is equivalent to <code>not (b < a)</code>. |
371
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425 As with the other comparison operators, |
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426 the result is always a boolean. |
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427 </li> |
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428 |
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429 <li><p><b>"index": </b> |
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430 The indexing access <code>table[key]</code>. |
373 | 431 |
432 This event happens | |
562
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433 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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434 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
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435 |
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436 |
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437 <p> |
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438 Despite the name, |
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439 the metamethod for this event can be any type. |
371
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440 If it is a function, |
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441 it is called with <code>table</code> and <code>key</code> as arguments. |
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442 Otherwise |
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443 the final result is the result of indexing this metamethod object with <code>key</code>. |
371
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444 (This indexing is regular, not raw, |
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445 and therefore can trigger another metamethod if the metamethod object is a table.) |
371
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446 </li> |
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447 |
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448 <li><p><b>"new_index": </b> |
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449 The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>. |
371
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450 |
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451 Like the index event, |
373 | 452 this event happens when |
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453 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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454 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
371
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455 |
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456 |
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457 <p> |
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458 Like with indexing, |
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459 the metamethod for this event can be either a function or a table. |
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460 If it is a function, |
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461 it is called with <code>table</code>, <code>key</code>, and <code>value</code> as arguments. |
371
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462 If it is a table, |
373 | 463 Luan does an indexing assignment to this table with the same key and value. |
371
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464 (This assignment is regular, not raw, |
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465 and therefore can trigger another metamethod.) |
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466 |
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467 |
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468 <p> |
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469 Whenever there is a "new_index" metamethod, |
373 | 470 Luan does not perform the primitive assignment. |
371
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471 (If necessary, |
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472 the metamethod itself can call <a href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>raw_set</code></a> |
371
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473 to do the assignment.) |
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474 </li> |
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475 |
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476 </ul> |
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477 |
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478 |
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479 |
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480 |
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481 <h3 heading><a name="gc">Garbage Collection</a></h3> |
380 | 482 |
483 <p> | |
484 Luan uses Java's garbage collection. | |
485 | |
486 | |
487 | |
488 | |
489 | |
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490 <h2 heading><a name="lang">The Language</a></h2> |
380 | 491 |
492 <p> | |
493 This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Luan. | |
371
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494 In other words, |
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495 this section describes |
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496 which tokens are valid, |
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497 how they can be combined, |
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498 and what their combinations mean. |
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499 |
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500 |
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501 <p> |
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502 Language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation, |
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503 in which |
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504 {<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and |
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505 [<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>. |
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506 Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal, |
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507 keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>, |
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508 and other terminal symbols are shown like ‘<b>=</b>’. |
380 | 509 The complete syntax of Luan can be found in <a href="#9">§9</a> |
371
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510 at the end of this manual. |
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511 |
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512 |
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513 |
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514 <h3 heading><a name="lex">Lexical Conventions</a></h3> |
380 | 515 |
516 <p> | |
517 Luan ignores spaces and comments | |
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518 between lexical elements (tokens), |
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519 except as delimiters between names and keywords. |
685 | 520 Luan considers the end of a line to be the end of a statement. This catches errors and encourages readability. If you want to continue a statement on another line, you can use a backslash followed by a newline which will be treated as white space. |
562
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521 |
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522 <p> |
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523 <em>Names</em> |
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524 (also called <em>identifiers</em>) |
380 | 525 in Luan can be any string of letters, |
371
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526 digits, and underscores, |
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527 not beginning with a digit. |
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528 Identifiers are used to name variables, table fields, and labels. |
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529 |
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530 |
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531 <p> |
562
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532 The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved |
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533 and cannot be used as names: |
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534 |
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535 |
562
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536 <pre> |
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537 and break do else elseif end |
1092 | 538 end_do end_for end_function end_if end_while |
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539 false for function goto if in |
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540 local nil not or repeat return |
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541 then true until while |
562
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542 </pre> |
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543 |
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544 <p> |
380 | 545 Luan is a case-sensitive language: |
562
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546 <code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code> |
371
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547 are two different, valid names. |
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548 |
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549 |
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550 <p> |
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551 The following strings denote other tokens: |
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552 |
562
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553 <pre> |
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554 + - * / % ^ # |
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555 & ~ | << >> // |
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556 == ~= <= >= < > = |
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557 ( ) { } [ ] :: |
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558 ; : , . .. ... |
562
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559 </pre> |
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560 |
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561 <p> |
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562 <em>Literal strings</em> |
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563 can be delimited by matching single or double quotes, |
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564 and can contain the following C-like escape sequences: |
562
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565 '<code>\a</code>' (bell), |
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566 '<code>\b</code>' (backspace), |
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567 '<code>\f</code>' (form feed), |
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568 '<code>\n</code>' (newline), |
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569 '<code>\r</code>' (carriage return), |
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570 '<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab), |
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571 '<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab), |
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572 '<code>\\</code>' (backslash), |
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573 '<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]), |
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574 and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]). |
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575 A backslash followed by a real newline |
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576 results in a newline in the string. |
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577 The escape sequence '<code>\z</code>' skips the following span |
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578 of white-space characters, |
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579 including line breaks; |
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580 it is particularly useful to break and indent a long literal string |
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581 into multiple lines without adding the newlines and spaces |
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582 into the string contents. |
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583 |
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584 |
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585 <p> |
380 | 586 Luan can specify any character in a literal string by its numerical value. |
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587 This can be done |
562
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588 with the escape sequence <code>\x<em>XX</em></code>, |
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589 where <em>XX</em> is a sequence of exactly two hexadecimal digits, |
793 | 590 or with the escape sequence <code>\u<em>XXXX</em></code>, |
591 where <em>XXXX</em> is a sequence of exactly four hexadecimal digits, | |
562
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592 or with the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>, |
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593 where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits. |
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594 (Note that if a decimal escape sequence is to be followed by a digit, |
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595 it must be expressed using exactly three digits.) |
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596 |
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597 |
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598 <p> |
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599 Literal strings can also be defined using a long format |
562
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600 enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>. |
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601 We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening |
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602 square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another |
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603 opening square bracket. |
562
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604 So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>, |
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605 an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>, |
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606 and so on. |
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607 A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly; |
371
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608 for instance, |
562
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609 a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>. |
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610 A <em>long literal</em> starts with an opening long bracket of any level and |
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611 ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level. |
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612 It can contain any text except a closing bracket of the same level. |
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613 Literals in this bracketed form can run for several lines, |
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614 do not interpret any escape sequences, |
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615 and ignore long brackets of any other level. |
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616 Any kind of end-of-line sequence |
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617 (carriage return, newline, carriage return followed by newline, |
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618 or newline followed by carriage return) |
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619 is converted to a simple newline. |
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620 |
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621 |
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622 <p> |
380 | 623 Any character in a literal string not |
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624 explicitly affected by the previous rules represents itself. |
380 | 625 However, Luan opens files for parsing in text mode, |
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626 and the system file functions may have problems with |
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627 some control characters. |
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628 So, it is safer to represent |
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629 non-text data as a quoted literal with |
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630 explicit escape sequences for non-text characters. |
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631 |
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632 |
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633 <p> |
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634 For convenience, |
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635 when the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline, |
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636 the newline is not included in the string. |
380 | 637 As an example |
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638 the five literal strings below denote the same string: |
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639 |
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640 <pre> |
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641 a = 'alo\n123"' |
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642 a = "alo\n123\"" |
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643 a = '\97lo\10\04923"' |
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644 a = [[alo |
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645 123"]] |
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646 a = [==[ |
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647 alo |
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648 123"]==] |
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649 </pre> |
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650 |
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651 <p> |
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652 A <em>numerical constant</em> (or <em>numeral</em>) |
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653 can be written with an optional fractional part |
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654 and an optional decimal exponent, |
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655 marked by a letter '<code>e</code>' or '<code>E</code>'. |
380 | 656 Luan also accepts hexadecimal constants, |
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657 which start with <code>0x</code> or <code>0X</code>. |
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658 Hexadecimal constants also accept an optional fractional part |
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659 plus an optional binary exponent, |
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660 marked by a letter '<code>p</code>' or '<code>P</code>'. |
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661 A numeric constant with a fractional dot or an exponent |
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662 denotes a float; |
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663 otherwise it denotes an integer. |
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664 Examples of valid integer constants are |
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665 |
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666 <pre> |
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667 3 345 0xff 0xBEBADA |
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668 </pre> |
382 | 669 |
670 <p> | |
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671 Examples of valid float constants are |
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672 |
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673 <pre> |
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674 3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 34e1 |
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675 0x0.1E 0xA23p-4 0X1.921FB54442D18P+1 |
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676 </pre> |
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677 |
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678 <p> |
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679 A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>) |
371
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680 anywhere outside a string. |
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681 If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket, |
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682 the comment is a <em>short comment</em>, |
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683 which runs until the end of the line. |
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684 Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>, |
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685 which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket. |
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686 Long comments are frequently used to disable code temporarily. |
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687 |
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688 |
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689 |
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690 |
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691 |
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692 <h3 heading><a name="vars">Variables</a></h3> |
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693 |
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694 <p> |
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695 Variables are places that store values. |
380 | 696 There are three kinds of variables in Luan: |
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697 global variables, local variables, and table fields. |
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698 |
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699 <p> |
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700 A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable |
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701 (or a function's formal parameter, |
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702 which is a particular kind of local variable): |
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703 |
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704 <pre> |
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705 var ::= Name |
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706 </pre> |
382 | 707 |
708 <p> | |
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709 Name denotes identifiers, as defined in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>. |
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710 |
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711 <p> |
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712 Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>: |
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713 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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714 defined inside their scope (see <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>). |
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715 |
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716 |
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717 <p> |
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718 Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>. |
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719 |
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720 <p> |
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721 Square brackets are used to index a table: |
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722 |
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723 <pre> |
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724 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ |
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725 </pre> |
382 | 726 |
727 <p> | |
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728 The meaning of accesses to table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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729 An access to an indexed variable <code>t[i]</code> is equivalent to |
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730 a call <code>gettable_event(t,i)</code>. |
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731 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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732 <code>gettable_event</code> function. |
380 | 733 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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734 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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735 |
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736 |
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737 <p> |
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738 The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for |
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739 <code>var["Name"]</code>: |
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740 |
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741 <pre> |
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742 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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743 </pre> |
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744 |
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745 <p> |
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746 Global variables are not available by default. To enable global variable, you must define <code>_ENV</code> as a local variable whose value is a table. If <code>_ENV</code> is not defined, then an unrecognized variable name will produce a compile error. If <code>_ENV</code> is defined then an access to an unrecognized variable name will be consider a global variable. So then an acces to global variable <code>x</code> |
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747 is equivalent to <code>_ENV.x</code>. |
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748 Due to the way that chunks are compiled, |
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749 <code>_ENV</code> is never a global name (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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750 |
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751 |
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752 |
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753 |
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754 |
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755 <h3 heading><a name="stmts">Statements</a></h3> |
389 | 756 |
757 <p> | |
758 Luan supports an almost conventional set of statements, | |
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759 similar to those in Pascal or C. |
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760 This set includes |
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761 assignments, control structures, function calls, |
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762 and variable declarations. |
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763 |
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764 |
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765 |
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766 <h4 heading><a name="blocks">Blocks</a></h4> |
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767 |
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768 <p> |
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769 A block is a list of statements, |
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770 which are executed sequentially: |
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771 |
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772 <pre> |
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773 block ::= {stat} |
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774 </pre> |
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775 |
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776 <p> |
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777 Luan has <em>empty statements</em> |
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778 that allow you to separate statements with semicolons, |
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779 start a block with a semicolon |
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780 or write two semicolons in sequence: |
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781 |
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782 <pre> |
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783 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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784 </pre> |
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785 |
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786 <p> |
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787 A block can be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement: |
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788 |
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789 <pre> |
1092 | 790 stat ::= <b>do</b> block end_do |
791 end_do ::= <b>end_do</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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792 </pre> |
389 | 793 |
794 <p> | |
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795 Explicit blocks are useful |
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796 to control the scope of variable declarations. |
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797 Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to |
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798 add a <b>return</b> statement in the middle |
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799 of another block (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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800 |
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801 |
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802 |
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803 |
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804 |
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805 <h4 heading><a name="chunks">Chunks</a></h4> |
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806 |
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807 <p> |
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808 The unit of compilation of Luan is called a <em>chunk</em>. |
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809 Syntactically, |
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810 a chunk is simply a block: |
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811 |
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812 <pre> |
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813 chunk ::= block |
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814 </pre> |
395 | 815 |
816 <p> | |
817 Luan handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function | |
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818 with a variable number of arguments |
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819 (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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820 As such, chunks can define local variables, |
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821 receive arguments, and return values. |
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822 |
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823 |
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824 <p> |
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825 A chunk can be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program. |
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826 To execute a chunk, |
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827 Luan first <em>loads</em> it, |
395 | 828 compiling the chunk's code, |
829 and then Luan executes the compiled code. | |
830 | |
831 | |
832 | |
833 | |
834 | |
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835 <h4 heading><a name="assignment">Assignment</a></h4> |
395 | 836 |
837 <p> | |
838 Luan allows multiple assignments. | |
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839 Therefore, the syntax for assignment |
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840 defines a list of variables on the left side |
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841 and a list of expressions on the right side. |
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842 The elements in both lists are separated by commas: |
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843 |
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844 <pre> |
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845 stat ::= varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist |
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846 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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847 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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848 </pre> |
395 | 849 |
850 <p> | |
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851 Expressions are discussed in <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>. |
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852 |
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853 |
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854 <p> |
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855 Before the assignment, |
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856 the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of |
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857 the list of variables. |
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858 If there are more values than needed, |
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859 the excess values are thrown away. |
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860 If there are fewer values than needed, |
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861 the list is extended with as many <b>nil</b>'s as needed. |
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862 If the list of expressions ends with a function call, |
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863 then all values returned by that call enter the list of values, |
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864 before the adjustment |
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865 (except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>). |
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866 |
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867 |
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868 <p> |
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869 The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions |
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870 and only then the assignments are performed. |
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871 Thus the code |
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872 |
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873 <pre> |
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874 i = 3 |
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875 i, a[i] = i+1, 20 |
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876 </pre> |
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877 |
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878 <p> |
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879 sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code> |
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880 because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3) |
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881 before it is assigned 4. |
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882 Similarly, the line |
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883 |
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884 <pre> |
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885 x, y = y, x |
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886 </pre> |
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887 |
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888 <p> |
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889 exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>, |
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890 and |
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891 |
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892 <pre> |
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893 x, y, z = y, z, x |
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894 </pre> |
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895 |
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896 <p> |
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897 cyclically permutes the values of <code>x</code>, <code>y</code>, and <code>z</code>. |
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898 |
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899 |
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900 <p> |
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901 The meaning of assignments to global variables |
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902 and table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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903 An assignment to an indexed variable <code>t[i] = val</code> is equivalent to |
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904 <code>settable_event(t,i,val)</code>. |
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905 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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906 <code>settable_event</code> function. |
395 | 907 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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908 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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909 |
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910 |
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911 <p> |
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912 An assignment to a global name <code>x = val</code> |
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913 is equivalent to the assignment |
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914 <code>_ENV.x = val</code> (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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915 Global names are only available when <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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916 |
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917 |
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918 |
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919 <h4 heading><a name="control">Control Structures</a></h4> |
395 | 920 |
921 <p> | |
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922 The control structures |
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923 <b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and |
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924 familiar syntax: |
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925 |
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926 <pre> |
1092 | 927 stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_while |
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928 stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
1092 | 929 stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] end_if |
930 end_while ::= <b>end_while</b> | <b>end</b> | |
931 end_if ::= <b>end_if</b> | <b>end</b> | |
562
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932 </pre> |
395 | 933 |
934 <p> | |
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935 Luan also has a <b>for</b> statement (see <a href="#for">For Statement</a>). |
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936 |
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937 |
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938 <p> |
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939 The condition expression of a |
395 | 940 control structure must be a boolean. |
941 Any other value type will produce an error. | |
942 This helps catch errors and makes code more readable. | |
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943 |
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944 |
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945 <p> |
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946 In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop, |
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947 the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword, |
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948 but only after the condition. |
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949 So, the condition can refer to local variables |
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950 declared inside the loop block. |
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951 |
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952 |
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953 <p> |
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954 The <b>break</b> statement terminates the execution of a |
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955 <b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop, |
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956 skipping to the next statement after the loop: |
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957 |
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958 |
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959 <pre> |
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960 stat ::= <b>break</b> |
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961 </pre> |
395 | 962 |
963 <p> | |
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964 A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop. |
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965 |
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966 |
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967 <p> |
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968 The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values |
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969 from a function or a chunk |
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970 (which is an anonymous function). |
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971 |
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972 Functions can return more than one value, |
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973 so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is |
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974 |
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975 <pre> |
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976 stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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977 </pre> |
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978 |
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979 |
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980 |
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981 |
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982 <h4 heading><a name="for">For Statement</a></h4> |
395 | 983 |
984 <p> | |
985 The <b>for</b> statement works over functions, | |
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986 called <em>iterators</em>. |
395 | 987 On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value, |
988 stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>. | |
989 The <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax: | |
990 | |
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991 <pre> |
1092 | 992 stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_for |
395 | 993 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
1092 | 994 end_for ::= <b>end_for</b> | <b>end</b> |
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995 </pre> |
395 | 996 |
997 <p> | |
998 A <b>for</b> statement like | |
999 | |
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1000 <pre> |
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1001 for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>exp</em> do <em>block</em> end |
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1002 </pre> |
395 | 1003 |
1004 <p> | |
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1005 is equivalent to the code: |
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1006 |
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1007 <pre> |
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1008 do |
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1009 local <em>f</em> = <em>exp</em> |
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1010 while true do |
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1011 local <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> = <em>f</em>() |
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1012 if <em>var_1</em> == nil then break end |
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1013 <em>block</em> |
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1014 end |
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1015 end |
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1016 </pre> |
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1017 |
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1018 <p> |
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1019 Note the following: |
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1020 |
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1021 <ul> |
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1022 |
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1023 <li> |
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1024 <code><em>exp</em></code> is evaluated only once. |
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1025 Its result is an <em>iterator</em> function. |
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1026 </li> |
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1027 |
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1028 <li> |
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1029 <code><em>f</em></code> is an invisible variable. |
395 | 1030 The name is here for explanatory purposes only. |
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1031 </li> |
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1032 |
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1033 <li> |
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1034 You can use <b>break</b> to exit a <b>for</b> loop. |
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1035 </li> |
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1036 |
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1037 <li> |
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1038 The loop variables <code><em>var_i</em></code> are local to the loop; |
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1039 you cannot use their values after the <b>for</b> ends. |
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1040 If you need these values, |
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1041 then assign them to other variables before breaking or exiting the loop. |
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1042 </li> |
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1043 |
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1044 </ul> |
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1045 |
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1046 |
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1047 |
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1048 |
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1049 <h4 heading><a name="fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></h4> |
395 | 1050 |
1051 <p> | |
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1052 To allow possible side-effects, |
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1053 function calls can be executed as statements: |
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1054 |
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1055 <pre> |
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1056 stat ::= functioncall |
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1057 </pre> |
395 | 1058 |
1059 <p> | |
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1060 In this case, all returned values are thrown away. |
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1061 Function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>. |
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1062 |
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1063 |
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1064 |
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1065 <h4 heading><a name="local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></h4> |
395 | 1066 |
1067 <p> | |
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1068 Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block. |
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1069 The declaration can include an initial assignment: |
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1070 |
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1071 <pre> |
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1072 stat ::= <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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1073 </pre> |
395 | 1074 |
1075 <p> | |
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1076 If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics |
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1077 of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#assignment">Assignment</a>). |
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1078 Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>. |
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1079 |
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1080 |
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1081 <p> |
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1082 A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#chunks">Chunks</a>), |
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1083 and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block. |
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1084 |
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1085 |
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1086 <p> |
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1087 The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>. |
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1088 |
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1089 |
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1090 <h4 heading><a name="template_stmt">Template Statements</a></h4> |
465 | 1091 |
1092 <p>Template statements are based on <a href="#template_expr">template exressions</a> and provide the full equivalent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a> but in a general way. Template statements write the equivalent template exression to standard output. For example:</p> | |
1093 | |
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1094 <pre><%=Html.encode[[ |
465 | 1095 local name = "Bob" |
1096 %> | |
469 | 1097 Hello <%= name %>! |
1098 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1099 <% |
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1100 ]]%></pre> |
465 | 1101 |
1102 <p>is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1103 | |
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1104 <pre><%=Html.encode[[ |
465 | 1105 local name = "Bob" |
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1106 require("luan:Io.luan").stdout.write( %> |
469 | 1107 Hello <%= name %>! |
1108 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1109 <% ) |
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1110 ]]%></pre> |
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1111 |
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1112 |
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1113 |
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1114 <h3 heading><a name="expressions">Expressions</a></h3> |
395 | 1115 |
1116 <p> | |
1117 The basic expressions in Luan are the following: | |
1118 | |
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1119 <pre> |
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1120 exp ::= prefixexp |
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1121 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> |
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1122 exp ::= Numeral |
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1123 exp ::= LiteralString |
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1124 exp ::= functiondef |
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1125 exp ::= tableconstructor |
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1126 exp ::= ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1127 exp ::= exp binop exp |
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1128 exp ::= unop exp |
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1129 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1130 </pre> |
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1131 |
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1132 <p> |
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1133 Numerals and literal strings are explained in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>; |
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1134 variables are explained in <a href="#vars">Variables</a>; |
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1135 function definitions are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>; |
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1136 function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>; |
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1137 table constructors are explained in <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>. |
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1138 Vararg expressions, |
562
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1139 denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used when |
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1140 directly inside a vararg function; |
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1141 they are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>. |
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1142 |
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1143 |
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1144 <p> |
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1145 Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1146 relational operators (see <a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1147 and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a>). |
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1148 Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1149 the unary logical <b>not</b> (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1150 and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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1151 |
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1152 |
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1153 <p> |
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1154 Both function calls and vararg expressions can result in multiple values. |
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1155 If a function call is used as a statement (see <a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a>), |
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1156 then its return list is adjusted to zero elements, |
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1157 thus discarding all returned values. |
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1158 If an expression is used as the last (or the only) element |
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1159 of a list of expressions, |
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1160 then no adjustment is made |
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1161 (unless the expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1162 In all other contexts, |
395 | 1163 Luan adjusts the result list to one element, |
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1164 either discarding all values except the first one |
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1165 or adding a single <b>nil</b> if there are no values. |
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1166 |
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1167 |
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1168 <p> |
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1169 Here are some examples: |
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1170 |
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1171 <pre> |
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1172 f() -- adjusted to 0 results |
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1173 g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1174 g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f() |
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1175 a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil) |
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1176 a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg parameter, b gets |
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1177 -- the second (both a and b can get nil if there |
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1178 -- is no corresponding vararg parameter) |
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1179 |
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1180 a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results |
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1181 a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results |
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1182 return f() -- returns all results from f() |
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1183 return ... -- returns all received vararg parameters |
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1184 return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f() |
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1185 {f()} -- creates a list with all results from f() |
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1186 {...} -- creates a list with all vararg parameters |
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1187 {f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1188 </pre> |
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1189 |
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1190 <p> |
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1191 Any expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value. |
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1192 Thus, |
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1193 <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value, |
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1194 even if <code>f</code> returns several values. |
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1195 (The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code> |
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1196 or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.) |
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1197 |
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1198 |
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1199 |
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1200 <h4 heading><a name="arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></h4> |
395 | 1201 |
1202 <p> | |
1203 Luan supports the following arithmetic operators: | |
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1204 |
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1205 <ul> |
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1206 <li><b><code>+</code>: </b>addition</li> |
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1207 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>subtraction</li> |
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1208 <li><b><code>*</code>: </b>multiplication</li> |
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1209 <li><b><code>/</code>: </b>division</li> |
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1210 <li><b><code>%</code>: </b>modulo</li> |
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1211 <li><b><code>^</code>: </b>exponentiation</li> |
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1212 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>unary minus</li> |
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1213 </ul> |
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1214 |
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1215 <p> |
395 | 1216 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and unary minus are the same as these operators in Java. Exponentiation uses Java's <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Math.html#pow(double,%20double)">Math.pow</a> function. |
371
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1217 |
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1218 <p> |
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1219 Modulo is defined as the remainder of a division |
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1220 that rounds the quotient towards minus infinite (floor division). |
395 | 1221 (The Java modulo operator is not used.) |
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1222 |
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1223 |
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1224 |
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1225 <h4 heading><a name="conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></h4> |
396 | 1226 |
1227 <p> | |
465 | 1228 Luan generally avoids automatic conversions. |
1229 String concatenation automatically converts all of its arguments to strings. | |
1230 | |
1231 <p> | |
1232 Luan provides library functions for explicit type conversions. | |
371
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1233 |
396 | 1234 |
1235 | |
1236 | |
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1237 <h4 heading><a name="relational">Relational Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1238 |
1239 <p> | |
1240 Luan supports the following relational operators: | |
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1241 |
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1242 <ul> |
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1243 <li><b><code>==</code>: </b>equality</li> |
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1244 <li><b><code>~=</code>: </b>inequality</li> |
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1245 <li><b><code><</code>: </b>less than</li> |
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1246 <li><b><code>></code>: </b>greater than</li> |
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1247 <li><b><code><=</code>: </b>less or equal</li> |
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1248 <li><b><code>>=</code>: </b>greater or equal</li> |
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1249 </ul><p> |
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1250 These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1251 |
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1252 |
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1253 <p> |
562
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1254 Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands. |
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1255 If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>. |
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1256 Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared. |
396 | 1257 Strings, numbers, and binary values are compared in the obvious way (by value). |
1258 | |
1259 <p> | |
1260 Tables | |
371
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1261 are compared by reference: |
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1262 two objects are considered equal only if they are the same object. |
396 | 1263 Every time you create a new table, |
1264 it is different from any previously existing table. | |
1265 Closures are also compared by reference. | |
1266 | |
1267 <p> | |
417 | 1268 You can change the way that Luan compares tables |
464
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1269 by using the "eq" metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
371
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1270 |
396 | 1271 <p> |
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1272 Java values are compared for equality with the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#equals(java.lang.Object)"><code>equals</code></a> method. |
371
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1273 |
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1274 <p> |
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1275 Equality comparisons do not convert strings to numbers |
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1276 or vice versa. |
562
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1277 Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>, |
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1278 and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different |
371
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1279 entries in a table. |
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1280 |
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1281 |
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1282 <p> |
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1283 The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>). |
371
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1284 |
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1285 |
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1286 <p> |
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1287 The order operators work as follows. |
396 | 1288 |
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1289 If both arguments are numbers, |
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1290 then they are compared following |
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1291 the usual rule for binary operations. |
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1292 Otherwise, if both arguments are strings, |
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1293 then their values are compared according to the current locale. |
396 | 1294 Otherwise, Luan tries to call the "lt" or the "le" |
464
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1295 metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
562
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1296 A comparison <code>a > b</code> is translated to <code>b < a</code> |
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1297 and <code>a >= b</code> is translated to <code>b <= a</code>. |
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1298 |
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1299 |
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1300 |
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1301 |
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1302 |
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1303 <h4 heading><a name="logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1304 |
1305 <p> | |
1306 The logical operators in Luan are | |
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1307 <b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>. |
396 | 1308 The <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false |
1309 and anything else as true. | |
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1310 Like the control structures (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>), |
396 | 1311 the <b>not</b> operator requires a boolean value. |
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1312 |
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1313 <p> |
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1314 The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1315 The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument |
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1316 if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>; |
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1317 otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument. |
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1318 The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument |
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1319 if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>; |
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1320 otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument. |
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1321 Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-circuit evaluation; |
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1322 that is, |
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1323 the second operand is evaluated only if necessary. |
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1324 Here are some examples: |
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1325 |
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1326 <pre> |
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1327 10 or 20 --> 10 |
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1328 10 or error() --> 10 |
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1329 nil or "a" --> "a" |
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1330 nil and 10 --> nil |
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1331 false and error() --> false |
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1332 false and nil --> false |
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1333 false or nil --> nil |
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1334 10 and 20 --> 20 |
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1335 </pre> |
396 | 1336 |
1337 <p> | |
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1338 (In this manual, |
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1339 <code>--></code> indicates the result of the preceding expression.) |
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1340 |
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1341 |
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1342 |
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1343 <h4 heading><a name="concatenation">Concatenation</a></h4> |
396 | 1344 |
1345 <p> | |
1346 The string concatenation operator in Luan is | |
562
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1347 denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>'). |
396 | 1348 All operands are converted to strings. |
1349 | |
1350 | |
1351 | |
562
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1352 <h4 heading><a name="length">The Length Operator</a></h4> |
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1353 |
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1354 <p> |
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1355 The length operator is denoted by the unary prefix operator <code>#</code>. |
396 | 1356 The length of a string is its number of characters. |
1357 The length of a binary is its number of bytes. | |
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1358 |
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1359 |
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1360 <p> |
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1361 A program can modify the behavior of the length operator for |
562
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1362 any table through the <code>__len</code> metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
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1363 |
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1364 |
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1365 <p> |
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1366 Unless a <code>__len</code> metamethod is given, |
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1367 the length of a table <code>t</code> is defined |
396 | 1368 as the number of elements in <em>sequence</em>, |
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1369 that is, |
396 | 1370 the size of the set of its positive numeric keys is equal to <em>{1..n}</em> |
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1371 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>. |
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1372 In that case, <em>n</em> is its length. |
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1373 Note that a table like |
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1374 |
562
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1375 <pre> |
371
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1376 {10, 20, nil, 40} |
562
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1377 </pre> |
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1378 |
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1379 <p> |
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1380 has a length of <code>2</code>, because that is the last key in sequence. |
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1381 |
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1382 |
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1383 |
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1384 |
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1385 |
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1386 <h4 heading><a name="precedence">Precedence</a></h4> |
396 | 1387 |
1388 <p> | |
1389 Operator precedence in Luan follows the table below, | |
371
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1390 from lower to higher priority: |
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1391 |
562
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1392 <pre> |
371
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1393 or |
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1394 and |
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1395 < > <= >= ~= == |
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1396 .. |
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1397 + - |
396 | 1398 * / % |
1399 unary operators (not # -) | |
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1400 ^ |
562
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1401 </pre> |
396 | 1402 |
1403 <p> | |
371
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1404 As usual, |
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1405 you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression. |
562
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1406 The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>') |
371
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1407 operators are right associative. |
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1408 All other binary operators are left associative. |
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1409 |
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1410 |
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1411 |
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1412 |
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1413 |
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1414 <h4 heading><a name="constructors">Table Constructors</a></h4> |
396 | 1415 |
1416 <p> | |
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1417 Table constructors are expressions that create tables. |
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1418 Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created. |
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1419 A constructor can be used to create an empty table |
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1420 or to create a table and initialize some of its fields. |
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1421 The general syntax for constructors is |
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1422 |
562
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1423 <pre> |
604
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1424 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ fieldlist ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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1425 fieldlist ::= [field] {fieldsep [field]} |
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1426 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
604
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1427 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ | <b>end_of_line</b> |
562
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1428 </pre> |
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1429 |
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1430 <p> |
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1431 Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry |
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1432 with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>. |
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1433 A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to |
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1434 <code>["name"] = exp</code>. |
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1435 Finally, fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to |
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1436 <code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive integers |
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1437 starting with 1. |
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1438 Fields in the other formats do not affect this counting. |
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1439 For example, |
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1440 |
562
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1441 <pre> |
371
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1442 a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 } |
562
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1443 </pre> |
396 | 1444 |
1445 <p> | |
371
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1446 is equivalent to |
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1447 |
562
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1448 <pre> |
371
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1449 do |
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1450 local t = {} |
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1451 t[f(1)] = g |
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1452 t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp |
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1453 t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp |
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1454 t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1 |
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1455 t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp |
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1456 t[30] = 23 |
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1457 t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp |
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1458 a = t |
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1459 end |
562
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1460 </pre> |
371
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1461 |
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1462 <p> |
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1463 The order of the assignments in a constructor is undefined. |
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1464 (This order would be relevant only when there are repeated keys.) |
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1465 |
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1466 |
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1467 <p> |
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1468 If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code> |
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1469 and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression, |
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1470 then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively |
464
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1471 (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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1472 |
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1473 |
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1474 <p> |
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1475 The field list can have an optional trailing separator, |
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1476 as a convenience for machine-generated code. |
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1477 |
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1478 |
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1479 |
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1480 |
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1481 |
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1482 <h4 heading><a name="fn_calls">Function Calls</a></h4> |
417 | 1483 |
1484 <p> | |
1485 A function call in Luan has the following syntax: | |
1486 | |
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1487 <pre> |
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1488 functioncall ::= prefixexp args |
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1489 </pre> |
417 | 1490 |
1491 <p> | |
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1492 In a function call, |
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1493 first prefixexp and args are evaluated. |
685 | 1494 The value of prefixexp must have type <em>function</em>. |
1495 This function is called | |
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1496 with the given arguments. |
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1497 |
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1498 |
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1499 <p> |
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1500 Arguments have the following syntax: |
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1501 |
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1502 <pre> |
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1503 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1504 args ::= tableconstructor |
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1505 args ::= LiteralString |
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1506 </pre> |
417 | 1507 |
1508 <p> | |
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1509 All argument expressions are evaluated before the call. |
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1510 A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is |
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1511 syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>; |
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1512 that is, the argument list is a single new table. |
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1513 A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code> |
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1514 (or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>) |
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1515 is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>; |
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1516 that is, the argument list is a single literal string. |
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1517 |
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1518 |
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1519 |
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1520 |
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1521 <h4 heading><a name="fn_def">Function Definitions</a></h4> |
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1522 |
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1523 <p> |
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1524 The syntax for function definition is |
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1525 |
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1526 <pre> |
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1527 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
1092 | 1528 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block end_function |
1529 end_function ::= <b>end_function</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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1530 </pre> |
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1531 |
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1532 <p> |
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1533 The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions: |
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1534 |
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1535 <pre> |
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1536 stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
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1537 stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
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1538 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
562
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1539 </pre> |
417 | 1540 |
1541 <p> | |
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1542 The statement |
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1543 |
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1544 <pre> |
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1545 function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1546 </pre> |
417 | 1547 |
1548 <p> | |
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1549 translates to |
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1550 |
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1551 <pre> |
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1552 f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1553 </pre> |
417 | 1554 |
1555 <p> | |
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1556 The statement |
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1557 |
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1558 <pre> |
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1559 function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end |
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1560 </pre> |
417 | 1561 |
1562 <p> | |
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1563 translates to |
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1564 |
562
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1565 <pre> |
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1566 t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1567 </pre> |
417 | 1568 |
1569 <p> | |
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1570 The statement |
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1571 |
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1572 <pre> |
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1573 local function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1574 </pre> |
417 | 1575 |
1576 <p> | |
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1577 translates to |
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1578 |
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1579 <pre> |
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1580 local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1581 </pre> |
417 | 1582 |
1583 <p> | |
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1584 not to |
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1585 |
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1586 <pre> |
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1587 local f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1588 </pre> |
417 | 1589 |
1590 <p> | |
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1591 (This only makes a difference when the body of the function |
562
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1592 contains references to <code>f</code>.) |
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1593 |
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1594 |
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1595 <p> |
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1596 A function definition is an executable expression, |
562
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1597 whose value has type <em>function</em>. |
417 | 1598 When Luan precompiles a chunk, |
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1599 all its function bodies are precompiled too. |
417 | 1600 Then, whenever Luan executes the function definition, |
562
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1601 the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>). |
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1602 This function instance (or <em>closure</em>) |
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1603 is the final value of the expression. |
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1604 |
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1605 |
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1606 <p> |
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1607 Parameters act as local variables that are |
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1608 initialized with the argument values: |
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1609 |
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1610 <pre> |
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1611 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1612 </pre> |
417 | 1613 |
1614 <p> | |
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1615 When a function is called, |
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1616 the list of arguments is adjusted to |
1090
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1617 the length of the list of parameters if the list is too short, |
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1618 unless the function is a <em>vararg function</em>, |
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1619 which is indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>') |
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1620 at the end of its parameter list. |
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1621 A vararg function does not adjust its argument list; |
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1622 instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them |
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1623 to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>, |
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1624 which is also written as three dots. |
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1625 The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments, |
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1626 similar to a function with multiple results. |
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1627 If a vararg expression is used inside another expression |
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1628 or in the middle of a list of expressions, |
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1629 then its return list is adjusted to one element. |
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1630 If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions, |
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1631 then no adjustment is made |
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1632 (unless that last expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1633 |
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1634 |
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|
1635 <p> |
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1636 As an example, consider the following definitions: |
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1637 |
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1638 <pre> |
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1639 function f(a, b) end |
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1640 function g(a, b, ...) end |
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1641 function r() return 1,2,3 end |
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1642 </pre> |
417 | 1643 |
1644 <p> | |
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1645 Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and |
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1646 to the vararg expression: |
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1647 |
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1648 <pre> |
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1649 CALL PARAMETERS |
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1650 |
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1651 f(3) a=3, b=nil |
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1652 f(3, 4) a=3, b=4 |
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1653 f(3, 4, 5) runtime error |
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1654 f(r(), 10) runtime error |
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1655 f(r()) runtime error |
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1656 |
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1657 g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing) |
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1658 g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing) |
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1659 g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8 |
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1660 g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3 |
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1661 </pre> |
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1662 |
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1663 <p> |
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1664 Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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1665 If control reaches the end of a function |
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1666 without encountering a <b>return</b> statement, |
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1667 then the function returns with no results. |
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1668 |
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1669 |
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1670 <h4 heading><a name="template_expr">Template Expressions</a></h4> |
465 | 1671 |
1672 <p>Luan template expression are based on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a>. Template expressions return multiple values. Here is an example:</p> | |
1673 | |
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1674 <pre><%=Html.encode[[ |
465 | 1675 local name = "Bob" |
469 | 1676 write( %>Hello <%= name %>!<% ) |
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1677 ]]%></pre> |
465 | 1678 |
1679 <p>This is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1680 | |
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1681 <pre> |
465 | 1682 local name = "Bob" |
1683 write( "Hello ", name, "!" ) | |
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1684 </pre> |
465 | 1685 |
1686 <p>The strings in template expressions may be multiple lines.</p> | |
1687 | |
417 | 1688 |
1689 | |
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1690 <h3 heading><a name="visibility">Visibility Rules</a></h3> |
417 | 1691 |
1692 <p> | |
1693 Luan is a lexically scoped language. | |
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1694 The scope of a local variable begins at the first statement after |
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1695 its declaration and lasts until the last non-void statement |
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1696 of the innermost block that includes the declaration. |
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1697 Consider the following example: |
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1698 |
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1699 <pre> |
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1700 x = 10 -- global variable |
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1701 do -- new block |
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1702 local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10 |
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1703 print(x) --> 10 |
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1704 x = x+1 |
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1705 do -- another block |
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1706 local x = x+1 -- another 'x' |
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1707 print(x) --> 12 |
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1708 end |
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1709 print(x) --> 11 |
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1710 end |
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1711 print(x) --> 10 (the global one) |
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1712 </pre> |
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1713 |
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1714 <p> |
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1715 Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>, |
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1716 the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet, |
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1717 and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable. |
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1718 |
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1719 |
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1720 <p> |
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1721 Because of the lexical scoping rules, |
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1722 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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1723 defined inside their scope. |
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1724 A local variable used by an inner function is called |
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1725 an <em>upvalue</em>, or <em>external local variable</em>, |
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1726 inside the inner function. |
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1727 |
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1728 |
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1729 <p> |
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1730 Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement |
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1731 defines new local variables. |
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1732 Consider the following example: |
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1733 |
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1734 <pre> |
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1735 a = {} |
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1736 local x = 20 |
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1737 for i=1,10 do |
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1738 local y = 0 |
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1739 a[i] = function () y=y+1; return x+y end |
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1740 end |
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1741 </pre> |
417 | 1742 |
1743 <p> | |
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1744 The loop creates ten closures |
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1745 (that is, ten instances of the anonymous function). |
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1746 Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable, |
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1747 while all of them share the same <code>x</code>. |
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1748 |
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1749 |
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1750 |
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1751 |
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1752 |
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1753 <h2 heading><a name="libs">Standard Libraries</a></h2> |
468 | 1754 |
1755 <p> | |
1756 The standard Luan libraries provide useful functions | |
1757 that are implemented both in Java and in Luan itself. | |
1758 How each function is implemented shouldn't matter to the user. | |
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1759 Some of these functions provide essential services to the language |
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1760 (e.g., <a href="#Luan.type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a>); |
468 | 1761 others provide access to "outside" services (e.g., I/O). |
1762 | |
1763 | |
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1764 <h3 heading><a name="default_lib">Default Environment</a></h3> |
468 | 1765 |
1766 <p> | |
1767 These are provided by default as local variables for any Luan code as described in <a href="#env">Environments</a>. | |
1768 | |
470 | 1769 |
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1770 <h4 heading><a name="require"><code>java ()</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1771 |
1772 <p> | |
1773 This function enables Java in the current chunk if that chunk has permission to use Java. If the chunk doesn't have permission to use Java, then an error is thrown. | |
1774 | |
1775 | |
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1776 <h4 heading><a name="require"><code>require (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1777 |
1778 <p> | |
1779 Example use: | |
1780 | |
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1781 <pre> |
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1782 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
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1783 </pre> |
470 | 1784 |
1785 <p> | |
1786 Could be defined as: | |
1787 | |
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1788 <pre> |
470 | 1789 local function require(mod_name) |
476 | 1790 return <a href="#Package.load">Package.load</a>(mod_name) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("module '"..mod_name.."' not found") |
470 | 1791 end |
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1792 </pre> |
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1793 |
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1794 |
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1795 <h3 heading><a name="luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></h3> |
470 | 1796 |
1797 <p> | |
1798 Include this library by: | |
1799 | |
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1800 <pre> |
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1801 local Luan = require "luan:Luan.luan" |
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1802 </pre> |
470 | 1803 |
476 | 1804 <p> |
470 | 1805 The basic library provides basic functions to Luan that don't depend on other libaries. |
1806 | |
1807 | |
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1808 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.do_file" href="#Luan.do_file"><code>Luan.do_file ([uri])</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1809 |
1810 <p> | |
1811 Could be defined as: | |
1812 | |
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1813 <pre> |
470 | 1814 function Luan.do_file(uri) |
474 | 1815 return <a href="#Luan.load_file">Luan.load_file</a>(uri)() |
470 | 1816 end |
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1817 </pre> |
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1818 |
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1819 |
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1820 |
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1821 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.error" href="#Luan.error"><code>Luan.error (message)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1822 |
1823 <p> | |
482 | 1824 Throws an error containing the message. |
1825 | |
1826 <p> | |
1827 Could be defined as: | |
1828 | |
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1829 <pre> |
482 | 1830 function Luan.error(message) |
1831 <a href="#Luan.new_error">Luan.new_error</a>(message).throw() | |
1832 end | |
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1833 </pre> |
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1834 |
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1835 |
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1836 |
695 | 1837 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.eval" href="#Luan.eval"><code>Luan.eval (text [, source_name])</code></a></h4> |
1838 | |
1839 <p> | |
1840 Evaluates <code>text</code> as a Luan expression. | |
1841 | |
1842 <p> | |
1843 Could be defined as: | |
1844 | |
1845 <pre> | |
1846 function Luan.eval(text,source_name) | |
1847 return Luan.load( "return "..text, source_name or "eval" )() | |
1848 end | |
1849 </pre> | |
1850 | |
1851 | |
1852 | |
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1853 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.get_metatable" href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>Luan.get_metatable (table)</code></a></h4> |
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1854 |
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1855 <p> |
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1856 If <code>table</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>. |
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1857 Otherwise, |
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1858 if the table's metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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1859 returns the associated value. |
470 | 1860 Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given table. |
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1861 |
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1862 |
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1863 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.ipairs" href="#Luan.ipairs"><code>Luan.ipairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
474 | 1864 |
1865 <p> | |
1866 Returns an iterator function | |
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1867 so that the construction |
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1868 |
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1869 <pre> |
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1870 for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1871 </pre> |
474 | 1872 |
1873 <p> | |
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1874 will iterate over the key–value pairs |
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1875 (<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ..., |
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1876 up to the first nil value. |
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1877 |
474 | 1878 <p> |
1879 Could be defined as: | |
1880 | |
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1881 <pre> |
474 | 1882 function Luan.ipairs(t) |
1883 local i = 0 | |
1884 return function() | |
1885 if i < #t then | |
1886 i = i + 1 | |
1887 return i, t[i] | |
1888 end | |
1889 end | |
1890 end | |
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1891 </pre> |
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1892 |
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1893 |
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1894 |
695 | 1895 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load" href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load (text, source_name [, env])</code></a></h4> |
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1896 |
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1897 <p> |
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1898 Loads a chunk. |
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1899 |
474 | 1900 <p> |
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1901 The <code>text</code> is compiled. |
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1902 If there are no syntactic errors, |
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1903 returns the compiled chunk as a function; |
474 | 1904 otherwise, throws an error. |
1905 | |
1906 <p> | |
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1907 The <code>source_name</code> parameter is a string saying where the text came from. It is used to produce error messages. |
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1908 |
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1909 <p> |
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1910 If the <code>env</code> parameter is supplied, it becomes the <code>_ENV</code> of the chunk. |
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1911 |
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1912 |
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1913 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load_file" href="#Luan.load_file"><code>Luan.load_file ([file_uri])</code></a></h4> |
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1914 |
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1915 <p> |
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1916 Similar to <a href="#Luan.load"><code>load</code></a>, |
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1917 but gets the chunk from file <code>file_uri</code> |
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1918 or from the standard input, |
474 | 1919 if no file uri is given. |
1920 | |
1921 <p> | |
1922 Could be defined as: | |
1923 | |
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1924 <pre> |
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1925 function Luan.load_file(file_uri) |
474 | 1926 file_uri = file_uri or "stdin:" |
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1927 local f = Io.uri(file_uri) |
474 | 1928 f.exists() or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("file '"..file_uri.."' not found") |
1929 return <a href="#Luan.load">Luan.load</a>( f.read_text(), file_uri ) | |
1930 end | |
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1931 </pre> |
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1932 |
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1933 |
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1934 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.new_error" href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error (message)</code></a></h4> |
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1935 |
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1936 <p> |
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1937 Creates a new error table containing the message assigned to "<code>message</code>". The error table also contains a <code>throw</code> function which throws the error. The table also contains a list of stack trace elements where each stack trace element is a table containing "<code>source</code>", "<code>line</code>", and possible "<code>call_to</code>". The table also has a metatable containing "<code>__to_string</code>" to render the error. |
482 | 1938 |
1939 <p> | |
1940 To print the current stack trace, you could do: | |
1941 | |
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1942 <pre> |
482 | 1943 Io.print( Luan.new_error "stack" ) |
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1944 </pre> |
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1945 |
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1946 |
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1947 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pairs" href="#Luan.pairs"><code>Luan.pairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
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1948 |
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1949 <p> |
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1950 If <code>t</code> has a metamethod <code>__pairs</code>, |
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1951 calls it with <code>t</code> as argument and returns the |
475 | 1952 result from the call. |
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1953 |
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1954 |
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1955 <p> |
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1956 Otherwise, |
475 | 1957 returns a function |
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1958 so that the construction |
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1959 |
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1960 <pre> |
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1961 for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1962 </pre> |
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1963 |
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1964 <p> |
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1965 will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>. |
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1966 |
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1967 |
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1968 |
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1969 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pcall" href="#Luan.pcall"><code>Luan.pcall (f [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h4> |
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1970 |
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1971 <p> |
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1972 Calls function <code>f</code> with |
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1973 the given arguments in <em>protected mode</em>. |
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1974 This means that any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated; |
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1975 instead, <code>pcall</code> catches the error |
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1976 and returns a status code. |
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1977 Its first result is the status code (a boolean), |
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1978 which is true if the call succeeds without errors. |
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1979 In such case, <code>pcall</code> also returns all results from the call, |
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1980 after this first result. |
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1981 In case of any error, <code>pcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error. |
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1982 |
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1983 |
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1984 |
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1985 |
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1986 <p> |
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1987 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3> |
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1988 Receives any number of arguments |
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1989 and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>, |
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1990 using the <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> function to convert each argument to a string. |
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1991 <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output, |
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1992 but only as a quick way to show a value, |
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1993 for instance for debugging. |
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1994 For complete control over the output, |
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1995 use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.write"><code>io.write</code></a>. |
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1996 |
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1997 |
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1998 |
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1999 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.range" href="#Luan.range"><code>Luan.range (start, stop [, step])</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2000 |
2001 <p> | |
2002 Based on <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html#range">the Python range() function</a>, this lets one iterate through a sequence of numbers. | |
2003 | |
2004 <p> | |
2005 Example use: | |
2006 | |
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2007 <pre> |
476 | 2008 for i in range(1,10) do |
2009 Io.print("count up:",i) | |
2010 end | |
2011 for i in range(10,0,-1) do | |
2012 Io.print("count down:",i) | |
2013 end | |
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2014 </pre> |
476 | 2015 |
2016 <p> | |
2017 Could be defined as: | |
2018 | |
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2019 <pre> |
476 | 2020 function Luan.range(start, stop, step) |
2021 step = step or 1 | |
478 | 2022 step == 0 and <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a> "bad argument #3 (step may not be zero)" |
476 | 2023 local i = start |
2024 return function() | |
2025 if step > 0 and i <= stop or step < 0 and i >= stop then | |
2026 local rtn = i | |
2027 i = i + step | |
2028 return rtn | |
2029 end | |
2030 end | |
2031 end | |
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2032 </pre> |
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2033 |
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2034 |
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2035 |
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2036 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_equal" href="#Luan.raw_equal"><code>Luan.raw_equal (v1, v2)</code></a></h4> |
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2037 |
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2038 <p> |
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2039 Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>, |
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2040 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2041 Returns a boolean. |
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2042 |
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2043 |
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2044 |
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2045 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_get" href="#Luan.raw_get"><code>Luan.raw_get (table, index)</code></a></h4> |
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2046 |
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2047 <p> |
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2048 Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>, |
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2049 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2050 <code>table</code> must be a table; |
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2051 <code>index</code> may be any value. |
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2052 |
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2053 |
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2054 |
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2055 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_len" href="#Luan.raw_len"><code>Luan.raw_len (v)</code></a></h4> |
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2056 |
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2057 <p> |
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2058 Returns the length of the object <code>v</code>, |
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2059 which must be a table or a string, |
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2060 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2061 Returns an integer. |
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2062 |
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2063 |
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2064 |
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2065 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_set" href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>Luan.raw_set (table, index, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2066 |
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2067 <p> |
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2068 Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>, |
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2069 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2070 <code>table</code> must be a table, |
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2071 <code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b>, |
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2072 and <code>value</code> any Lua value. |
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2073 |
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2074 |
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2075 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.set_metatable" href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>Luan.set_metatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h4> |
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2076 |
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2077 <p> |
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2078 Sets the metatable for the given table. |
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2079 If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>, |
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2080 removes the metatable of the given table. |
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2081 If the original metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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2082 raises an error. |
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2083 |
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2084 |
1189 | 2085 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.stringify" href="#Luan.stringify"><code>Luan.stringify (v [,strict])</code></a></h4> |
2086 | |
2087 <p> | |
2088 Receives a value of any type and converts it to a string that is a Luan expression. <code>strict</code> is a boolean. If <code>strict</code> is true then invalid types throw an error. If <code>strict</code> is false then invalid types are represented but the resulting expression is invalid. <code>strict</code> defaults to <b>true</b>. | |
2089 | |
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2090 |
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2091 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.to_string" href="#Luan.to_string"><code>Luan.to_string (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2092 |
2093 <p> | |
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2094 Receives a value of any type and |
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2095 converts it to a string in a human-readable format. |
475 | 2096 |
2097 <p> | |
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2098 If the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>"__to_string"</code> field, |
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2099 then <code>to_string</code> calls the corresponding value |
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2100 with <code>v</code> as argument, |
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2101 and uses the result of the call as its result. |
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2102 |
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2103 |
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2104 |
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2105 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.try" href="#Luan.try"><code>Luan.try (t, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2106 |
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2107 <p> |
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2108 Implements try-catch as found in other languages where each block is in table <code>t</code>. <code>t[1]</code> is the "try" block. The <code>t.catch</code> and <code>t.finally</code> blocks are optional. Any extra arguments are passed to the "try" function. Returns the result of the "try" block or the "catch" block. |
476 | 2109 |
2110 <p> | |
2111 Example use: | |
2112 | |
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2113 <pre> |
476 | 2114 try { |
2115 function() | |
2116 a_dangerous_fn() | |
702 | 2117 end |
476 | 2118 catch = function(e) |
2119 -- handle error | |
702 | 2120 end |
476 | 2121 finally = function() |
2122 -- clean up | |
702 | 2123 end |
476 | 2124 } |
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2125 </pre> |
476 | 2126 |
482 | 2127 <p> |
2128 Could be defined as: | |
2129 | |
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2130 <pre> |
482 | 2131 function Luan.try(t) |
2132 local r = { <a href="#Luan.pcall">Luan.pcall</a>(t[1]) } | |
2133 if r[1] then | |
2134 Table.remove(r,1) | |
2135 elseif t.catch ~= nil then | |
2136 r = { t.catch(r[2]) } | |
2137 else | |
2138 t.finally and t.finally() | |
2139 r[2].throw() | |
2140 end | |
2141 t.finally and t.finally() | |
2142 return Table.unpack(r) | |
2143 end | |
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2144 </pre> |
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2145 |
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2146 |
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2147 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.type" href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2148 |
2149 <p> | |
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2150 Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string. |
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2151 The possible results of this function are |
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2152 "<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>), |
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2153 "<code>number</code>", |
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2154 "<code>string</code>", |
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2155 "<code>binary</code>", |
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2156 "<code>boolean</code>", |
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2157 "<code>table</code>", |
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2158 "<code>function</code>", |
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2159 and "<code>java</code>". |
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2160 |
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2161 |
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2162 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.values" href="#Luan.values"><code>Luan.values (···)</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2163 |
2164 <p> | |
2165 Returns a function so that the construction | |
2166 | |
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2167 <pre> |
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2168 for v in Luan.values(···) do <em>body</em> end |
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2169 </pre> |
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2170 |
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2171 <p> |
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2172 will iterate over all values of <code>···</code>. |
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2173 |
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2174 |
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2175 |
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2176 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.VERSION" href="#Luan.VERSION"><code>Luan.VERSION</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2177 |
2178 <p> | |
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2179 A global variable (not a function) that |
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2180 holds a string containing the current interpreter version. |
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2181 The current value of this variable is "<code><%=Luan.VERSION%></code>". |
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2182 |
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2183 |
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2184 |
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2185 |
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2186 |
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2187 |
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2188 <h3 heading><a name="package_lib">Modules</a></h3> |
476 | 2189 |
2190 <p> | |
2191 Include this library by: | |
2192 | |
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2193 <pre> |
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2194 local Package = require "luan:Package.luan" |
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2195 </pre> |
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2196 |
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2197 <p> |
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2198 The package library provides basic |
476 | 2199 facilities for loading modules in Luan. |
2200 | |
2201 | |
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2202 <h4 heading><a name="Package.load" href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
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2203 |
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2204 <p> |
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2205 Loads the given module. |
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2206 The function starts by looking into the <a href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a> table |
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2207 to determine whether <code>mod_uri</code> is already loaded. |
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2208 If it is, then <code>Package.load</code> returns the value stored |
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2209 at <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. |
476 | 2210 Otherwise, it tries to load a new value for the module. |
2211 | |
2212 <p> | |
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2213 To load a new value, <code>Package.load</code> first checks if <code>mod_uri</code> starts with "<b>java:</b>". If yes, then this is a Java class which is loaded by special Java code. |
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2214 |
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2215 <p> |
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2216 Otherwise <code>Package.load</code> tries to read the text of the file referred to by <code>mod_uri</code>. If the file doesn't exist, then <code>Package.load</code> returns <b>false</b>. If the file exists, then its content is compiled into a chunk by calling <a href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load</code></a>. This chunk is run passing in <code>mod_uri</code> as an argument. The value returned by the chunk must not be <b>nil</b> and is loaded. |
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2217 |
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2218 <p> |
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2219 If a new value for the module successful loaded, then it is stored in <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. The value is returned. |
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2220 |
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2221 |
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2222 |
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2223 |
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2224 <h4 heading><a name="Package.loaded" href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a></h4> |
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2225 |
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2226 |
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2227 <p> |
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2228 A table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> to control which |
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2229 modules are already loaded. |
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2230 When you load a module <code>mod_uri</code> and |
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2231 <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code> is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2232 <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> simply returns the value stored there. |
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2233 |
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2234 |
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2235 <p> |
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2236 This variable is only a reference to the real table; |
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2237 assignments to this variable do not change the |
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2238 table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a>. |
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2239 |
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2240 |
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2241 |
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2242 |
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2243 |
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2244 |
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2245 <h3 heading><a name="string_lib">String Manipulation</a></h3> |
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2246 |
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2247 <p> |
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2248 Include this library by: |
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2249 |
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2250 <pre> |
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2251 local String = require "luan:String.luan" |
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2252 </pre> |
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2253 |
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2254 <p> |
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2255 This library provides generic functions for string manipulation, |
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2256 such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching. |
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2257 When indexing a string in Luan, the first character is at position 1 |
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2258 (not at 0, as in Java). |
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2259 Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards, |
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2260 from the end of the string. |
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2261 Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on. |
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2262 |
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2263 |
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2264 |
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2265 <h4 heading><a name="String.char" href="#String.char"><code>String.char (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2266 |
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2267 <p> |
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2268 Receives zero or more integers. |
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2269 Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments, |
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2270 in which each character has the internal numerical code equal |
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2271 to its corresponding argument. |
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2272 |
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2273 |
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2274 <h4 heading><a name="String.concat" href="#String.concat"><code>String.concat (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2275 |
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2276 <p> |
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2277 Concatenates the <a href="#Luan.to_string"><code>to_string</code></a> value of all arguments. |
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2278 |
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2279 |
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2280 |
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2281 <h4 heading><a name="String.encode" href="#String.encode"><code>String.encode (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2282 |
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2283 <p> |
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2284 Encodes argument <code>s</code> into a string that can be placed in quotes so as to return the original value of the string. |
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2285 |
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2286 |
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2287 |
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2288 |
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2289 <h4 heading><a name="String.find" href="#String.find"><code>String.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h4> |
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2290 |
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2291 <p> |
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2292 Looks for the first match of |
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2293 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2294 If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code> |
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2295 where this occurrence starts and ends; |
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2296 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2297 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2298 where to start the search; |
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2299 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2300 A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code> |
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2301 turns off the pattern matching facilities, |
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2302 so the function does a plain "find substring" operation, |
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2303 with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered magic. |
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2304 Note that if <code>plain</code> is given, then <code>init</code> must be given as well. |
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2305 |
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2306 <p> |
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2307 If the pattern has captures, |
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2308 then in a successful match |
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2309 the captured values are also returned, |
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2310 after the two indices. |
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2311 |
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2312 |
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2313 |
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2314 |
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2315 <h4 heading><a name="String.format" href="#String.format"><code>String.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2316 |
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2317 |
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2318 <p> |
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2319 Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments |
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2320 following the description given in its first argument (which must be a string). |
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2321 The format string follows the same rules as the Java function <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#format(java.lang.String,%20java.lang.Object...)"><code>String.format</code></a> because Luan calls this internally. |
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2322 |
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2323 <p> |
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2324 Note that Java's <code>String.format</code> is too stupid to convert between ints and floats, so you must provide the right kind of number. |
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2325 |
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2326 |
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2327 |
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2328 <h4 heading><a name="String.gmatch" href="#String.gmatch"><code>String.gmatch (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2329 |
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2330 <p> |
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2331 Returns an iterator function that, |
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2332 each time it is called, |
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2333 returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) |
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2334 over the string <code>s</code>. |
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2335 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2336 then the whole match is produced in each call. |
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2337 |
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2338 |
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2339 <p> |
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2340 As an example, the following loop |
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2341 will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>, |
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2342 printing one per line: |
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2343 |
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2344 <pre> |
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2345 local s = "hello world from Lua" |
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2346 for w in String.gmatch(s, [[\w+]]) do |
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2347 print(w) |
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2348 end |
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2349 </pre> |
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2350 |
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2351 <p> |
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2352 The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the |
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2353 given string into a table: |
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2354 |
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2355 <pre> |
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2356 local t = {} |
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2357 local s = "from=world, to=Lua" |
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2358 for k, v in String.gmatch(s, [[(\w+)=(\w+)]]) do |
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2359 t[k] = v |
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2360 end |
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2361 </pre> |
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2362 |
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2363 <p> |
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2364 For this function, a caret '<code>^</code>' at the start of a pattern does not |
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2365 work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration. |
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2366 |
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2367 |
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2368 |
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2369 <h4 heading><a name="String.gsub" href="#String.gsub"><code>String.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h4> |
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2370 |
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2371 <p> |
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2372 Returns a copy of <code>s</code> |
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2373 in which all (or the first <code>n</code>, if given) |
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2374 occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) have been |
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2375 replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>, |
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2376 which can be a string, a table, or a function. |
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2377 <code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value, |
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2378 the total number of matches that occurred. |
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2379 The name <code>gsub</code> comes from <em>Global SUBstitution</em>. |
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2380 |
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2381 |
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2382 <p> |
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2383 If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement. |
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2384 The character <code>\</code> works as an escape character. |
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2385 Any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>$<em>d</em></code>, |
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2386 with <em>d</em> between 1 and 9, |
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2387 stands for the value of the <em>d</em>-th captured substring. |
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2388 The sequence <code>$0</code> stands for the whole match. |
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2389 |
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2390 |
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2391 <p> |
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2392 If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match, |
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2393 using the first capture as the key. |
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2394 |
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2395 |
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2396 <p> |
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2397 If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a |
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2398 match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments, |
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2399 in order. |
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2400 |
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2401 |
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2402 <p> |
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2403 In any case, |
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2404 if the pattern specifies no captures, |
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2405 then it behaves as if the whole pattern was inside a capture. |
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2406 |
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2407 |
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2408 <p> |
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2409 If the value returned by the table query or by the function call |
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2410 is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2411 then it is used as the replacement string; |
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2412 otherwise, if it is <b>nil</b>, |
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2413 then there is no replacement |
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2414 (that is, the original match is kept in the string). |
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2415 |
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2416 |
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2417 <p> |
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2418 Here are some examples: |
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2419 |
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2420 <pre> |
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2421 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[(\w+)]], "$1 $1") |
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2422 --> x="hello hello world world" |
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2423 |
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2424 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[\w+]], "$0 $0", 1) |
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2425 --> x="hello hello world" |
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2426 |
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2427 x = String.gsub("hello world from Luan", [[(\w+)\s*(\w+)]], "$2 $1") |
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2428 --> x="world hello Luan from" |
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2429 |
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2430 x = String.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", [[\$(.*?)\$]], function (s) |
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2431 return load(s)() |
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2432 end) |
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2433 --> x="4+5 = 9" |
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2434 |
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2435 local t = {name="lua", version="5.3"} |
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2436 x = String.gsub("$name-$version.tar.gz", [[\$(\w+)]], t) |
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2437 --> x="lua-5.3.tar.gz" |
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2438 </pre> |
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2439 |
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2440 |
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2441 |
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2442 <h4 heading><a name="String.literal" href="#String.literal"><code>String.literal (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2443 <p> |
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2444 Returns a string which matches the literal string <code>s</code> in a regular expression. This function is simply the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html#quote(java.lang.String)"><code>Pattern.quote</code></a>. |
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2445 |
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2446 |
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2447 <h4 heading><a name="String.lower" href="#String.lower"><code>String.lower (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2448 <p> |
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2449 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2450 uppercase letters changed to lowercase. |
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2451 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2452 |
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2453 |
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2454 |
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2455 |
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2456 <h4 heading><a name="String.match" href="#String.match"><code>String.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2457 |
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2458 <p> |
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2459 Looks for the first <em>match</em> of |
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2460 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2461 If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns |
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2462 the captures from the pattern; |
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2463 otherwise it returns <b>nil</b>. |
562
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2464 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2465 then the whole match is returned. |
562
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2466 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2467 where to start the search; |
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2468 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2469 |
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2470 |
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2471 <h4 heading><a name="String.matches" href="#String.matches"><code>String.matches (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2472 <p> |
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2473 Returns a boolean indicating whether the <code>pattern</code> can be found in string <code>s</code>. |
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2474 This function is equivalent to |
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2475 |
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2476 <pre> |
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2477 return String.match(s,pattern) ~= nil |
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2478 </pre> |
562
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2479 |
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2480 |
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2481 <h4 heading><a name="String.rep" href="#String.rep"><code>String.rep (s, n [, sep])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2482 <p> |
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2483 Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of |
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2484 the string <code>s</code> separated by the string <code>sep</code>. |
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2485 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string |
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2486 (that is, no separator). |
562
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2487 Returns the empty string if <code>n</code> is not positive. |
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2488 |
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2489 |
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2490 |
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2491 |
642
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2492 <h4 heading><a name="String.reverse" href="#String.reverse"><code>String.reverse (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2493 <p> |
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2494 Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed. |
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2495 |
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2496 |
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2497 |
1195 | 2498 <h4 heading><a name="String.split" href="#String.match"><code>String.split (s, pattern [, limit])</code></a></h4> |
2499 | |
2500 <p> | |
2501 Splits <code>s</code> using regex <code>pattern</code> and returns the results. If <code>limit</code> is positive, then only returns at most that many results. If <code>limit</code> is zero, then remove trailing empty results. | |
2502 | |
2503 | |
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2504 |
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2505 <h4 heading><a name="String.sub" href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2506 |
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2507 <p> |
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2508 Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that |
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2509 starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>; |
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2510 <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> can be negative. |
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2511 If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1 |
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2512 (which is the same as the string length). |
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2513 In particular, |
562
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2514 the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code> |
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2515 with length <code>j</code>, |
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2516 and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> returns a suffix of <code>s</code> |
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2517 with length <code>i</code>. |
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2518 |
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2519 |
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2520 <p> |
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2521 If, after the translation of negative indices, |
562
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2522 <code>i</code> is less than 1, |
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2523 it is corrected to 1. |
562
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2524 If <code>j</code> is greater than the string length, |
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2525 it is corrected to that length. |
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2526 If, after these corrections, |
562
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2527 <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, |
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2528 the function returns the empty string. |
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2529 |
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2530 |
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2531 |
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2532 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_binary" href="#String.to_binary"><code>String.to_binary (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2533 |
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2534 <p> |
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2535 Converts a string to a binary by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#getBytes()"><code>String.getBytes</code></a>. |
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2536 |
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2537 |
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2538 |
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2539 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_number" href="#String.to_number"><code>String.to_number (s [, base])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2540 |
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2541 <p> |
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2542 When called with no <code>base</code>, |
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2543 <code>to_number</code> tries to convert its argument to a number. |
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2544 If the argument is |
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2545 a string convertible to a number, |
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2546 then <code>to_number</code> returns this number; |
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2547 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2548 |
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2549 The conversion of strings can result in integers or floats. |
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2550 |
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2551 |
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2552 <p> |
562
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2553 When called with <code>base</code>, |
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2554 then <code>s</code> must be a string to be interpreted as |
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2555 an integer numeral in that base. |
562
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2556 In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case) |
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2557 represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth, |
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2558 with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35. |
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2559 If the string <code>s</code> is not a valid numeral in the given base, |
556
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2560 the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2561 |
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2562 |
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2563 |
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2564 <h4 heading><a name="String.trim" href="#String.trim"><code>String.trim (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2565 |
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2566 <p> |
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2567 Removes the leading and trailing whitespace by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#trim()"><code>String.trim</code></a>. |
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2568 |
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2569 |
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2570 |
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2571 |
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2572 <h4 heading><a name="String.unicode" href="#String.unicode"><code>String.unicode (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2573 |
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2574 <p> |
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2575 Returns the internal numerical codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>, |
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2576 <code>s[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>s[j]</code>. |
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2577 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; |
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2578 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. |
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2579 These indices are corrected |
562
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2580 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. |
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2581 |
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2582 |
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2583 |
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2584 |
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2585 |
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2586 <h4 heading><a name="String.upper" href="#String.upper"><code>String.upper (s)</code></a></h4> |
556
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2587 <p> |
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2588 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2589 lowercase letters changed to uppercase. |
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2590 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2591 The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale. |
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2592 |
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|
2593 |
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|
2594 |
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|
2595 |
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2596 |
567 | 2597 <h3 heading><a name="binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></h3> |
2598 | |
2599 <p> | |
2600 Include this library by: | |
2601 | |
2602 <pre> | |
693
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2603 local Binary = require "luan:Binary.luan" |
567 | 2604 </pre> |
2605 | |
2606 | |
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2607 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.binary" href="#Binary.binary"><code>Binary.binary (···)</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2608 |
2609 <p> | |
2610 Receives zero or more bytes (as integers). | |
2611 Returns a binary with length equal to the number of arguments, | |
2612 in which each byte has the internal numerical code equal | |
2613 to its corresponding argument. | |
2614 | |
2615 | |
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2616 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.byte" href="#Binary.byte"><code>Binary.byte (b [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2617 |
2618 <p> | |
2619 Returns the internal numerical codes of the bytes <code>b[i]</code>, | |
2620 <code>b[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>b[j]</code>. | |
2621 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; | |
2622 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. | |
2623 These indices are corrected | |
2624 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. | |
2625 | |
2626 | |
642
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2627 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.to_string" href="#Binary.to_string"><code>Binary.to_string (b)</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2628 <p> |
2629 Converts the binary <code>b</code> to a string using the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#String(byte[])">String constructor</a>. | |
2630 | |
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2631 |
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2632 |
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2633 |
565
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2634 <h3 heading><a name="table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></h3> |
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2635 |
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2636 <p> |
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2637 Include this library by: |
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2638 |
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|
2639 <pre> |
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2640 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
565
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2641 </pre> |
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2642 |
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2643 <p> |
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2644 This library provides generic functions for table manipulation. |
565
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2645 It provides all its functions inside the table <code>Table</code>. |
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2646 |
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2647 |
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2648 |
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2649 <h4 heading><a name="Table.clear" href="#Table.clear"><code>Table.clear (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
580 | 2650 |
2651 <p> | |
2652 Clears the table. | |
2653 | |
2654 | |
642
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2655 <h4 heading><a name="Table.concat" href="#Table.concat"><code>Table.concat (list [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2656 |
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2657 <p> |
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2658 Given a list, |
371
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2659 returns the string <code>list[i]..sep..list[i+1] ··· sep..list[j]</code>. |
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2660 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string, |
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2661 the default for <code>i</code> is 1, |
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2662 and the default for <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>. |
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2663 If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string. |
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2664 |
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2665 |
642
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2666 <h4 heading><a name="Table.copy" href="#Table.copy"><code>Table.copy (tbl [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2667 |
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2668 <p> |
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2669 If <code>i</code> is <code>nil</code>, returns a shallow copy of <code>tbl</code>. |
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2670 Otherwise returns a new table which is a list of the elements <code>tbl[i] ··· tbl[j]</code>. |
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2671 By default, <code>j</code> is <code>#tbl</code>. |
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2672 |
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2673 |
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2674 |
642
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2675 <h4 heading><a name="Table.insert" href="#Table.insert"><code>Table.insert (list, pos, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2676 |
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2677 <p> |
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2678 Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>list</code>, |
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2679 shifting up the elements |
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2680 <code>list[pos], list[pos+1], ···, list[#list]</code>. |
565
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2681 |
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2682 |
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2683 |
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2684 <h4 heading><a name="Table.is_empty" href="#Table.is_empty"><code>Table.is_empty (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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2685 |
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|
2686 |
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2687 |
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2688 <h4 heading><a name="Table.pack" href="#Table.pack"><code>Table.pack (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2689 |
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2690 <p> |
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2691 Returns a new table with all parameters stored into keys 1, 2, etc. |
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2692 and with a field "<code>n</code>" with the total number of parameters. |
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2693 Note that the resulting table may not be a sequence. |
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2694 |
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2695 |
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2696 |
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2697 |
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2698 <h4 heading><a name="Table.remove" href="#Table.remove"><code>Table.remove (list, pos)</code></a></h4> |
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2699 |
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2700 |
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2701 <p> |
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2702 Removes from <code>list</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>, |
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2703 returning the value of the removed element. |
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2704 When <code>pos</code> is an integer between 1 and <code>#list</code>, |
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2705 it shifts down the elements |
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2706 <code>list[pos+1], list[pos+2], ···, list[#list]</code> |
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2707 and erases element <code>list[#list]</code>; |
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2708 The index <code>pos</code> can also be 0 when <code>#list</code> is 0, |
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|
2709 or <code>#list + 1</code>; |
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2710 in those cases, the function erases the element <code>list[pos]</code>. |
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2711 |
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|
2712 |
565
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2713 |
1100
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add Table.is_empty() and Table.size()
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2714 <h4 heading><a name="Table.size" href="#Table.size"><code>Table.size (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2715 |
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|
2716 |
565
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|
2717 |
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2718 <h4 heading><a name="Table.sort" href="#Table.sort"><code>Table.sort (list [, comp])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2719 |
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|
2720 <p> |
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2721 Sorts list elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>, |
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|
2722 from <code>list[1]</code> to <code>list[#list]</code>. |
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|
2723 If <code>comp</code> is given, |
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|
2724 then it must be a function that receives two list elements |
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2725 and returns true when the first element must come |
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|
2726 before the second in the final order |
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|
2727 (so that <code>not comp(list[i+1],list[i])</code> will be true after the sort). |
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|
2728 If <code>comp</code> is not given, |
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|
2729 then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead. |
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|
2730 |
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|
2731 <p> |
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|
2732 The sort algorithm is not stable; |
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|
2733 that is, elements considered equal by the given order |
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2734 may have their relative positions changed by the sort. |
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|
2735 |
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|
2736 |
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|
2737 |
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|
2738 <h4 heading><a name="Table.unpack" href="#Table.unpack"><code>Table.unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2739 |
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|
2740 <p> |
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|
2741 Returns the elements from the given list. |
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|
2742 This function is equivalent to |
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|
2743 |
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|
2744 <pre> |
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|
2745 return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j] |
565
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|
2746 </pre> |
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|
2747 |
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|
2748 <p> |
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|
2749 By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>. |
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|
2750 |
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|
2751 |
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|
2752 |
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|
2753 |
566
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|
2754 <h3 heading><a name="number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></h3> |
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|
2755 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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changeset
|
2756 <p> |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2757 Include this library by: |
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|
2758 |
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|
2759 <pre> |
693
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|
2760 local Number = require "luan:Number.luan" |
566
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|
2761 </pre> |
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|
2762 |
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|
2763 |
642
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|
2764 <h4 heading><a name="Number.double" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.double (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2765 <p> |
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|
2766 Returns <code>x</code> as a double. |
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|
2767 |
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diff
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|
2768 |
642
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|
2769 <h4 heading><a name="Number.integer" href="#Number.integer"><code>Number.integer (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2770 <p> |
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|
2771 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an integer, |
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|
2772 returns that integer. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2773 Otherwise throws an error. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2774 |
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diff
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|
2775 |
642
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diff
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|
2776 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long" href="#Number.long"><code>Number.long (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2777 <p> |
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diff
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|
2778 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an long, |
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diff
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|
2779 returns that long. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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565
diff
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|
2780 Otherwise throws an error. |
90b93790c544
Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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565
diff
changeset
|
2781 |
90b93790c544
Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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565
diff
changeset
|
2782 |
642
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diff
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|
2783 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long_to_string" href="#Number.long_to_string"><code>Number.long_to_string (i, radix)</code></a></h4> |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2784 <p> |
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diff
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|
2785 Converts long value <code>i</code> to a string by calling <code><a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Long.html#toString(long,%20int)">Long.toString</a></code>. |
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diff
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|
2786 |
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diff
changeset
|
2787 |
642
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|
2788 <h4 heading><a name="Number.type" href="#Number.type"><code>Number.type (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2789 <p> |
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diff
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|
2790 Returns a string for the numeric type of <code>x</code>. Possible return values include "<code>integer</code>", "<code>long</code>", "<code>double</code>", and "<code>float</code>". |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2791 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
changeset
|
2792 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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565
diff
changeset
|
2793 |
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diff
changeset
|
2794 |
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|
2795 <h3 heading><a name="math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></h3> |
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|
2796 |
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diff
changeset
|
2797 <p> |
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diff
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|
2798 Include this library by: |
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diff
changeset
|
2799 |
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diff
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|
2800 <pre> |
693
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|
2801 local Math = require "luan:Math.luan" |
566
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|
2802 </pre> |
371
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|
2803 |
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|
2804 <p> |
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|
2805 This library provides basic mathematical functions. |
566
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|
2806 It provides all its functions and constants inside the table <code>Math</code>. |
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|
2807 |
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|
2808 |
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|
2809 <h4 heading><a name="Math.abs" href="#Math.abs"><code>Math.abs (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2810 |
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|
2811 <p> |
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|
2812 Returns the absolute value of <code>x</code>. |
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|
2813 |
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|
2814 |
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|
2815 |
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2816 <h4 heading><a name="Math.acos" href="#Math.acos"><code>Math.acos (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2817 |
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|
2818 <p> |
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2819 Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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|
2820 |
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|
2821 |
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|
2822 |
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2823 |
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2824 <h4 heading><a name="Math.asin" href="#Math.asin"><code>Math.asin (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2825 |
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|
2826 <p> |
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|
2827 Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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|
2828 |
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|
2829 |
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changeset
|
2830 |
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|
2831 |
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|
2832 <h4 heading><a name="Math.atan" href="#Math.atan"><code>Math.atan (y, x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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changeset
|
2833 |
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changeset
|
2834 <p> |
371
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2835 Returns the arc tangent of <code>y/x</code> (in radians), |
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2836 but uses the signs of both parameters to find the |
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2837 quadrant of the result. |
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2838 (It also handles correctly the case of <code>x</code> being zero.) |
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2839 |
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2840 |
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2841 |
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2842 |
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2843 <h4 heading><a name="Math.ceil" href="#Math.ceil"><code>Math.ceil (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2844 |
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2845 <p> |
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2846 Returns the smallest integral value larger than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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2847 |
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2848 |
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|
2849 |
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2850 |
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2851 <h4 heading><a name="Math.cos" href="#Math.cos"><code>Math.cos (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2852 |
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2853 <p> |
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2854 Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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2855 |
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2856 |
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2857 |
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2858 |
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2859 <h4 heading><a name="Math.deg" href="#Math.deg"><code>Math.deg (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2860 |
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2861 <p> |
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2862 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from radians to degrees. |
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2863 |
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|
2864 |
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|
2865 |
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2866 |
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2867 <h4 heading><a name="Math.exp" href="#Math.exp"><code>Math.exp (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2868 |
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2869 <p> |
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2870 Returns the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em> |
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2871 (where <code>e</code> is the base of natural logarithms). |
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|
2872 |
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|
2873 |
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|
2874 |
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|
2875 |
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2876 <h4 heading><a name="Math.floor" href="#Math.floor"><code>Math.floor (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2877 |
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|
2878 <p> |
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|
2879 Returns the largest integral value smaller than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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|
2880 |
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|
2881 |
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|
2882 |
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|
2883 |
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2884 <h4 heading><a name="Math.fmod" href="#Math.fmod"><code>Math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2885 |
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|
2886 <p> |
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|
2887 Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code> |
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|
2888 that rounds the quotient towards zero. |
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|
2889 |
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|
2890 |
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|
2891 |
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|
2892 |
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2893 <h4 heading><a name="Math.huge" href="#Math.huge"><code>Math.huge</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2894 |
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|
2895 <p> |
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2896 A value larger than any other numerical value. |
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|
2897 |
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|
2898 |
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|
2899 |
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|
2900 |
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2901 <h4 heading><a name="Math.log" href="#Math.log"><code>Math.log (x [, base])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2902 |
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|
2903 <p> |
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|
2904 Returns the logarithm of <code>x</code> in the given base. |
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|
2905 The default for <code>base</code> is <em>e</em> |
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|
2906 (so that the function returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>). |
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|
2907 |
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|
2908 |
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|
2909 |
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|
2910 |
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2911 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max" href="#Math.max"><code>Math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2912 |
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|
2913 <p> |
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|
2914 Returns the argument with the maximum value, |
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|
2915 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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|
2916 |
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|
2917 |
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|
2918 |
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|
2919 |
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|
2920 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max_integer" href="#Math.max_integer"><code>Math.max_integer</code></a></h4> |
566
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2921 <p> |
371
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|
2922 An integer with the maximum value for an integer. |
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|
2923 |
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|
2924 |
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|
2925 |
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|
2926 |
642
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2927 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min" href="#Math.min"><code>Math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2928 |
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|
2929 <p> |
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2930 Returns the argument with the minimum value, |
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2931 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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|
2932 |
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|
2933 |
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|
2934 |
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|
2935 |
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2936 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min_integer" href="#Math.min_integer"><code>Math.min_integer</code></a></h4> |
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2937 <p> |
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2938 An integer with the minimum value for an integer. |
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|
2939 |
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|
2940 |
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|
2941 |
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2942 |
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2943 <h4 heading><a name="Math.modf" href="#Math.modf"><code>Math.modf (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2944 |
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|
2945 <p> |
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|
2946 Returns the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>. |
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|
2947 |
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|
2948 |
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|
2949 |
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2950 |
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2951 <h4 heading><a name="Math.pi" href="#Math.pi"><code>Math.pi</code></a></h4> |
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2952 |
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2953 <p> |
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|
2954 The value of <em>π</em>. |
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2955 |
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2956 |
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2957 |
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2958 |
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2959 <h4 heading><a name="Math.rad" href="#Math.rad"><code>Math.rad (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2960 |
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|
2961 <p> |
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|
2962 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from degrees to radians. |
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|
2963 |
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|
2964 |
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|
2965 |
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2966 |
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2967 <h4 heading><a name="Math.random" href="#Math.random"><code>Math.random ([m [, n])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2968 |
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|
2969 |
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2970 <p> |
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|
2971 When called without arguments, |
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2972 returns a pseudo-random float with uniform distribution |
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|
2973 in the range <em>[0,1)</em>. |
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2974 When called with two integers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>, |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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2975 <code>Math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random integer |
371
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2976 with uniform distribution in the range <em>[m, n]</em>. |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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2977 (The value <em>m-n</em> cannot be negative and must fit in a Luan integer.) |
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2978 The call <code>Math.random(n)</code> is equivalent to <code>Math.random(1,n)</code>. |
371
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2979 |
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|
2980 |
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2981 <p> |
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|
2982 This function is an interface to the underling |
566
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2983 pseudo-random generator function provided by Java. |
371
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2984 No guarantees can be given for its statistical properties. |
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|
2985 |
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|
2986 |
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|
2987 |
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|
2988 |
642
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2989 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sin" href="#Math.sin"><code>Math.sin (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2990 |
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2991 <p> |
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|
2992 Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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2993 |
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|
2994 |
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|
2995 |
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|
2996 |
642
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2997 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sqrt" href="#Math.sqrt"><code>Math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2998 |
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|
2999 <p> |
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|
3000 Returns the square root of <code>x</code>. |
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|
3001 (You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.) |
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|
3002 |
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|
3003 |
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|
3004 |
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|
3005 |
642
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|
3006 <h4 heading><a name="Math.tan" href="#Math.tan"><code>Math.tan (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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3007 |
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|
3008 <p> |
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|
3009 Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
3010 |
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|
3011 |
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|
3012 |
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|
3013 |
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|
3014 |
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|
3015 |
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|
3016 |
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|
3017 |
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|
3018 <h2>6.8 – <a name="6.8">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3019 |
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|
3020 <p> |
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|
3021 The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation. |
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|
3022 The first one uses implicit file handles; |
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|
3023 that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a |
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|
3024 default output file, |
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|
3025 and all input/output operations are over these default files. |
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|
3026 The second style uses explicit file handles. |
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|
3027 |
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|
3028 |
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|
3029 <p> |
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|
3030 When using implicit file handles, |
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|
3031 all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>. |
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|
3032 When using explicit file handles, |
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|
3033 the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file handle |
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|
3034 and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file handle. |
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|
3035 |
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|
3036 |
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|
3037 <p> |
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|
3038 The table <code>io</code> also provides |
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|
3039 three predefined file handles with their usual meanings from C: |
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|
3040 <a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>. |
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|
3041 The I/O library never closes these files. |
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|
3042 |
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|
3043 |
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|
3044 <p> |
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|
3045 Unless otherwise stated, |
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|
3046 all I/O functions return <b>nil</b> on failure |
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|
3047 (plus an error message as a second result and |
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|
3048 a system-dependent error code as a third result) |
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|
3049 and some value different from <b>nil</b> on success. |
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|
3050 On non-POSIX systems, |
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|
3051 the computation of the error message and error code |
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|
3052 in case of errors |
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|
3053 may be not thread safe, |
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|
3054 because they rely on the global C variable <code>errno</code>. |
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|
3055 |
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|
3056 |
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|
3057 <p> |
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|
3058 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3059 |
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changeset
|
3060 |
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|
3061 <p> |
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|
3062 Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>. |
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|
3063 Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file. |
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|
3064 |
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|
3065 |
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|
3066 |
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|
3067 |
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|
3068 <p> |
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|
3069 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3070 |
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|
3071 |
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|
3072 <p> |
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|
3073 Equivalent to <code>io.output():flush()</code>. |
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|
3074 |
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|
3075 |
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|
3076 |
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|
3077 |
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|
3078 <p> |
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|
3079 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3080 |
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|
3081 |
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|
3082 <p> |
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|
3083 When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode), |
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|
3084 and sets its handle as the default input file. |
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|
3085 When called with a file handle, |
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|
3086 it simply sets this file handle as the default input file. |
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3087 When called without parameters, |
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|
3088 it returns the current default input file. |
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|
3089 |
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diff
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|
3090 |
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|
3091 <p> |
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|
3092 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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diff
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3093 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3094 |
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|
3095 |
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diff
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|
3096 |
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|
3097 |
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3098 <p> |
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3099 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename ···])</code></a></h3> |
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3100 |
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|
3101 |
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|
3102 <p> |
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3103 Opens the given file name in read mode |
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3104 and returns an iterator function that |
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3105 works like <code>file:lines(···)</code> over the opened file. |
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|
3106 When the iterator function detects the end of file, |
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3107 it returns no values (to finish the loop) and automatically closes the file. |
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|
3108 |
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|
3109 |
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|
3110 <p> |
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|
3111 The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent |
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3112 to <code>io.input():lines("*l")</code>; |
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3113 that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file. |
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parents:
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3114 In this case it does not close the file when the loop ends. |
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|
3115 |
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|
3116 |
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|
3117 <p> |
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3118 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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diff
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|
3119 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3120 |
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diff
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|
3121 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3122 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3123 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3124 <p> |
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|
3125 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3126 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3127 |
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|
3128 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3129 This function opens a file, |
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|
3130 in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>. |
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3131 It returns a new file handle, |
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3132 or, in case of errors, <b>nil</b> plus an error message. |
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|
3133 |
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|
3134 |
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|
3135 <p> |
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|
3136 The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following: |
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|
3137 |
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|
3138 <ul> |
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|
3139 <li><b>"<code>r</code>": </b> read mode (the default);</li> |
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|
3140 <li><b>"<code>w</code>": </b> write mode;</li> |
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|
3141 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> append mode;</li> |
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|
3142 <li><b>"<code>r+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li> |
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|
3143 <li><b>"<code>w+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li> |
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3144 <li><b>"<code>a+</code>": </b> append update mode, previous data is preserved, |
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|
3145 writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li> |
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|
3146 </ul><p> |
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|
3147 The <code>mode</code> string can also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end, |
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|
3148 which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode. |
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|
3149 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3150 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3151 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3152 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3153 <p> |
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|
3154 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3155 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3156 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3157 <p> |
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|
3158 Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file. |
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|
3159 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3160 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3161 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3162 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3163 <p> |
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|
3164 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3165 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3166 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3167 <p> |
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|
3168 This function is system dependent and is not available |
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|
3169 on all platforms. |
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diff
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|
3170 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3171 |
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|
3172 <p> |
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|
3173 Starts program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns |
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|
3174 a file handle that you can use to read data from this program |
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|
3175 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default) |
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|
3176 or to write data to this program |
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|
3177 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>). |
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|
3178 |
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diff
changeset
|
3179 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3180 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3181 |
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|
3182 <p> |
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|
3183 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3184 |
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diff
changeset
|
3185 |
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|
3186 <p> |
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|
3187 Equivalent to <code>io.input():read(···)</code>. |
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|
3188 |
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diff
changeset
|
3189 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3190 |
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diff
changeset
|
3191 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3192 <p> |
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|
3193 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3194 |
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changeset
|
3195 |
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|
3196 <p> |
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|
3197 Returns a handle for a temporary file. |
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changeset
|
3198 This file is opened in update mode |
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|
3199 and it is automatically removed when the program ends. |
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changeset
|
3200 |
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diff
changeset
|
3201 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3202 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3203 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3204 <p> |
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|
3205 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3206 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3207 |
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changeset
|
3208 <p> |
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|
3209 Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle. |
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changeset
|
3210 Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle, |
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3211 <code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle, |
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|
3212 or <b>nil</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle. |
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|
3213 |
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|
3214 |
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|
3215 |
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|
3216 |
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|
3217 <p> |
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3218 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3219 |
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|
3220 |
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|
3221 <p> |
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|
3222 Equivalent to <code>io.output():write(···)</code>. |
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|
3223 |
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|
3224 |
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|
3225 |
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|
3226 |
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|
3227 <p> |
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3228 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3229 |
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|
3230 |
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|
3231 <p> |
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3232 Closes <code>file</code>. |
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3233 Note that files are automatically closed when |
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|
3234 their handles are garbage collected, |
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|
3235 but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen. |
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|
3236 |
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|
3237 |
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|
3238 <p> |
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|
3239 When closing a file handle created with <a href="#pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen</code></a>, |
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|
3240 <a href="#pdf-file:close"><code>file:close</code></a> returns the same values |
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|
3241 returned by <a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a>. |
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|
3242 |
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|
3243 |
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|
3244 |
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|
3245 |
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|
3246 <p> |
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|
3247 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3248 |
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|
3249 |
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|
3250 <p> |
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|
3251 Saves any written data to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3252 |
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|
3253 |
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|
3254 |
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|
3255 |
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|
3256 <p> |
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|
3257 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3258 |
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|
3259 |
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|
3260 <p> |
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|
3261 Returns an iterator function that, |
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|
3262 each time it is called, |
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3263 reads the file according to the given formats. |
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|
3264 When no format is given, |
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3265 uses "<code>l</code>" as a default. |
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3266 As an example, the construction |
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|
3267 |
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|
3268 <pre> |
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3269 for c in file:lines(1) do <em>body</em> end |
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|
3270 </pre><p> |
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|
3271 will iterate over all characters of the file, |
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3272 starting at the current position. |
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|
3273 Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file |
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|
3274 when the loop ends. |
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|
3275 |
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|
3276 |
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|
3277 <p> |
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|
3278 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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3279 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3280 |
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|
3281 |
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|
3282 |
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|
3283 |
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|
3284 <p> |
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|
3285 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3286 |
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|
3287 |
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|
3288 <p> |
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|
3289 Reads the file <code>file</code>, |
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|
3290 according to the given formats, which specify what to read. |
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|
3291 For each format, |
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|
3292 the function returns a string or a number with the characters read, |
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|
3293 or <b>nil</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format. |
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|
3294 (In this latter case, |
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|
3295 the function does not read subsequent formats.) |
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|
3296 When called without formats, |
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|
3297 it uses a default format that reads the next line |
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|
3298 (see below). |
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|
3299 |
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|
3300 |
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|
3301 <p> |
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|
3302 The available formats are |
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|
3303 |
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|
3304 <ul> |
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|
3305 |
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|
3306 <li><b>"<code>n</code>": </b> |
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diff
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|
3307 reads a numeral and returns it as a float or an integer, |
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|
3308 following the lexical conventions of Lua. |
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diff
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|
3309 (The numeral may have leading spaces and a sign.) |
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diff
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|
3310 This format always reads the longest input sequence that |
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diff
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|
3311 is a valid prefix for a number; |
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diff
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|
3312 if that prefix does not form a valid number |
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|
3313 (e.g., an empty string, "<code>0x</code>", or "<code>3.4e-</code>"), |
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|
3314 it is discarded and the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3315 </li> |
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|
3316 |
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|
3317 <li><b>"<code>i</code>": </b> |
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|
3318 reads an integral number and returns it as an integer. |
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|
3319 </li> |
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|
3320 |
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changeset
|
3321 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> |
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|
3322 reads the whole file, starting at the current position. |
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|
3323 On end of file, it returns the empty string. |
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|
3324 </li> |
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diff
changeset
|
3325 |
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diff
changeset
|
3326 <li><b>"<code>l</code>": </b> |
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|
3327 reads the next line skipping the end of line, |
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diff
changeset
|
3328 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3329 This is the default format. |
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diff
changeset
|
3330 </li> |
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diff
changeset
|
3331 |
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diff
changeset
|
3332 <li><b>"<code>L</code>": </b> |
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diff
changeset
|
3333 reads the next line keeping the end-of-line character (if present), |
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diff
changeset
|
3334 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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diff
changeset
|
3335 </li> |
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|
3336 |
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3337 <li><b><em>number</em>: </b> |
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|
3338 reads a string with up to this number of bytes, |
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3339 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3340 If <code>number</code> is zero, |
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3341 it reads nothing and returns an empty string, |
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3342 or <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3343 </li> |
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|
3344 |
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|
3345 </ul><p> |
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|
3346 The formats "<code>l</code>" and "<code>L</code>" should be used only for text files. |
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|
3347 |
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|
3348 |
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|
3349 |
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|
3350 |
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|
3351 <p> |
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|
3352 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence [, offset]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3353 |
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|
3354 |
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|
3355 <p> |
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3356 Sets and gets the file position, |
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|
3357 measured from the beginning of the file, |
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|
3358 to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base |
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3359 specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows: |
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3360 |
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|
3361 <ul> |
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3362 <li><b>"<code>set</code>": </b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li> |
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3363 <li><b>"<code>cur</code>": </b> base is current position;</li> |
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3364 <li><b>"<code>end</code>": </b> base is end of file;</li> |
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3365 </ul><p> |
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|
3366 In case of success, <code>seek</code> returns the final file position, |
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|
3367 measured in bytes from the beginning of the file. |
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|
3368 If <code>seek</code> fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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3369 plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3370 |
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|
3371 |
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|
3372 <p> |
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|
3373 The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>, |
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3374 and for <code>offset</code> is 0. |
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|
3375 Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current |
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3376 file position, without changing it; |
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3377 the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3378 beginning of the file (and returns 0); |
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|
3379 and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3380 end of the file, and returns its size. |
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|
3381 |
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|
3382 |
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diff
changeset
|
3383 |
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|
3384 |
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|
3385 <p> |
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|
3386 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3387 |
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|
3388 |
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|
3389 <p> |
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|
3390 Sets the buffering mode for an output file. |
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3391 There are three available modes: |
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|
3392 |
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|
3393 <ul> |
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|
3394 |
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|
3395 <li><b>"<code>no</code>": </b> |
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|
3396 no buffering; the result of any output operation appears immediately. |
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|
3397 </li> |
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|
3398 |
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|
3399 <li><b>"<code>full</code>": </b> |
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|
3400 full buffering; output operation is performed only |
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|
3401 when the buffer is full or when |
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|
3402 you explicitly <code>flush</code> the file (see <a href="#pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush</code></a>). |
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|
3403 </li> |
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|
3404 |
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|
3405 <li><b>"<code>line</code>": </b> |
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|
3406 line buffering; output is buffered until a newline is output |
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|
3407 or there is any input from some special files |
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|
3408 (such as a terminal device). |
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|
3409 </li> |
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|
3410 |
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|
3411 </ul><p> |
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|
3412 For the last two cases, <code>size</code> |
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|
3413 specifies the size of the buffer, in bytes. |
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|
3414 The default is an appropriate size. |
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|
3415 |
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|
3416 |
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|
3417 |
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|
3418 |
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|
3419 <p> |
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|
3420 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3421 |
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|
3422 |
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|
3423 <p> |
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|
3424 Writes the value of each of its arguments to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3425 The arguments must be strings or numbers. |
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|
3426 |
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|
3427 |
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|
3428 <p> |
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|
3429 In case of success, this function returns <code>file</code>. |
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|
3430 Otherwise it returns <b>nil</b> plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3431 |
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changeset
|
3432 |
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changeset
|
3433 |
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|
3434 |
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|
3435 |
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|
3436 |
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|
3437 |
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|
3438 <h2>6.9 – <a name="6.9">Operating System Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3439 |
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|
3440 <p> |
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|
3441 This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>. |
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|
3442 |
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|
3443 |
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|
3444 <p> |
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|
3445 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3446 |
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changeset
|
3447 |
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|
3448 <p> |
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|
3449 Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time |
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|
3450 used by the program. |
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|
3451 |
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|
3452 |
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|
3453 |
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|
3454 |
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|
3455 <p> |
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|
3456 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3457 |
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|
3458 |
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|
3459 <p> |
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|
3460 Returns a string or a table containing date and time, |
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3461 formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>. |
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3462 |
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|
3463 |
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3464 <p> |
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3465 If the <code>time</code> argument is present, |
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3466 this is the time to be formatted |
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3467 (see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value). |
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3468 Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time. |
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3469 |
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3470 |
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3471 <p> |
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3472 If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>', |
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3473 then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time. |
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3474 After this optional character, |
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3475 if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>", |
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3476 then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields: |
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3477 <code>year</code> (four digits), <code>month</code> (1–12), <code>day</code> (1–31), |
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3478 <code>hour</code> (0–23), <code>min</code> (0–59), <code>sec</code> (0–61), |
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3479 <code>wday</code> (weekday, Sunday is 1), |
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3480 <code>yday</code> (day of the year), |
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3481 and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean). |
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3482 This last field may be absent |
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3483 if the information is not available. |
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3484 |
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|
3485 |
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3486 <p> |
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3487 If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>", |
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3488 then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string, |
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3489 formatted according to the same rules as the ISO C function <code>strftime</code>. |
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|
3490 |
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|
3491 |
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3492 <p> |
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|
3493 When called without arguments, |
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3494 <code>date</code> returns a reasonable date and time representation that depends on |
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|
3495 the host system and on the current locale |
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|
3496 (that is, <code>os.date()</code> is equivalent to <code>os.date("%c")</code>). |
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|
3497 |
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changeset
|
3498 |
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|
3499 <p> |
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|
3500 On non-POSIX systems, |
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|
3501 this function may be not thread safe |
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|
3502 because of its reliance on C function <code>gmtime</code> and C function <code>localtime</code>. |
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|
3503 |
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|
3504 |
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|
3505 |
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|
3506 |
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|
3507 <p> |
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|
3508 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3509 |
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|
3510 |
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|
3511 <p> |
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|
3512 Returns the difference, in seconds, |
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|
3513 from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code> |
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|
3514 (where the times are values returned by <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a>). |
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|
3515 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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3516 this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>. |
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|
3517 |
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|
3518 |
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|
3519 |
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changeset
|
3520 |
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|
3521 <p> |
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|
3522 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3523 |
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|
3524 |
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|
3525 <p> |
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|
3526 This function is equivalent to the ISO C function <code>system</code>. |
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3527 It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell. |
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|
3528 Its first result is <b>true</b> |
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3529 if the command terminated successfully, |
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|
3530 or <b>nil</b> otherwise. |
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|
3531 After this first result |
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|
3532 the function returns a string plus a number, |
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|
3533 as follows: |
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|
3534 |
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|
3535 <ul> |
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|
3536 |
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|
3537 <li><b>"<code>exit</code>": </b> |
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|
3538 the command terminated normally; |
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|
3539 the following number is the exit status of the command. |
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|
3540 </li> |
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|
3541 |
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|
3542 <li><b>"<code>signal</code>": </b> |
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|
3543 the command was terminated by a signal; |
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|
3544 the following number is the signal that terminated the command. |
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|
3545 </li> |
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|
3546 |
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|
3547 </ul> |
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|
3548 |
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|
3549 <p> |
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|
3550 When called without a <code>command</code>, |
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|
3551 <code>os.execute</code> returns a boolean that is true if a shell is available. |
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|
3552 |
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|
3553 |
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|
3554 |
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|
3555 |
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|
3556 <p> |
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|
3557 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code [, close]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3558 |
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|
3559 |
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|
3560 <p> |
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|
3561 Calls the ISO C function <code>exit</code> to terminate the host program. |
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|
3562 If <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>, |
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|
3563 the returned status is <code>EXIT_SUCCESS</code>; |
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|
3564 if <code>code</code> is <b>false</b>, |
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|
3565 the returned status is <code>EXIT_FAILURE</code>; |
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|
3566 if <code>code</code> is a number, |
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|
3567 the returned status is this number. |
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|
3568 The default value for <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>. |
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|
3569 |
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changeset
|
3570 |
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|
3571 <p> |
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|
3572 If the optional second argument <code>close</code> is true, |
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|
3573 closes the Lua state before exiting. |
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|
3574 |
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changeset
|
3575 |
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changeset
|
3576 |
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changeset
|
3577 |
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|
3578 <p> |
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|
3579 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3580 |
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|
3581 |
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|
3582 <p> |
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|
3583 Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>, |
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|
3584 or <b>nil</b> if the variable is not defined. |
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|
3585 |
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diff
changeset
|
3586 |
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diff
changeset
|
3587 |
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diff
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|
3588 |
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diff
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|
3589 <p> |
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|
3590 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3591 |
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diff
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|
3592 |
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diff
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|
3593 <p> |
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|
3594 Deletes the file (or empty directory, on POSIX systems) |
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|
3595 with the given name. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3596 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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|
3597 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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|
3598 |
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diff
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|
3599 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3600 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3601 |
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diff
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|
3602 <p> |
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|
3603 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3604 |
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diff
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|
3605 |
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|
3606 <p> |
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|
3607 Renames file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>. |
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|
3608 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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|
3609 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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|
3610 |
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diff
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|
3611 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3612 |
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diff
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|
3613 |
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|
3614 <p> |
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|
3615 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3616 |
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diff
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|
3617 |
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|
3618 <p> |
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|
3619 Sets the current locale of the program. |
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|
3620 <code>locale</code> is a system-dependent string specifying a locale; |
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|
3621 <code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change: |
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|
3622 <code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>, |
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|
3623 <code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>; |
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|
3624 the default category is <code>"all"</code>. |
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|
3625 The function returns the name of the new locale, |
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diff
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|
3626 or <b>nil</b> if the request cannot be honored. |
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|
3627 |
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diff
changeset
|
3628 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3629 <p> |
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diff
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|
3630 If <code>locale</code> is the empty string, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3631 the current locale is set to an implementation-defined native locale. |
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|
3632 If <code>locale</code> is the string "<code>C</code>", |
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|
3633 the current locale is set to the standard C locale. |
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|
3634 |
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diff
changeset
|
3635 |
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diff
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|
3636 <p> |
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diff
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|
3637 When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument, |
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parents:
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|
3638 this function only returns the name of the current locale |
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|
3639 for the given category. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3640 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3641 |
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diff
changeset
|
3642 <p> |
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|
3643 This function may be not thread safe |
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diff
changeset
|
3644 because of its reliance on C function <code>setlocale</code>. |
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|
3645 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3646 |
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diff
changeset
|
3647 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3648 |
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changeset
|
3649 <p> |
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|
3650 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3651 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3652 |
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diff
changeset
|
3653 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3654 Returns the current time when called without arguments, |
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diff
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|
3655 or a time representing the date and time specified by the given table. |
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diff
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|
3656 This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>, |
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diff
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|
3657 and may have fields |
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diff
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|
3658 <code>hour</code> (default is 12), |
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diff
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|
3659 <code>min</code> (default is 0), |
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|
3660 <code>sec</code> (default is 0), |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
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parents:
diff
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|
3661 and <code>isdst</code> (default is <b>nil</b>). |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3662 For a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function. |
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|
3663 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3664 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3665 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3666 The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system. |
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diff
changeset
|
3667 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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diff
changeset
|
3668 this number counts the number |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3669 of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch"). |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3670 In other systems, the meaning is not specified, |
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diff
changeset
|
3671 and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3672 <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime</code></a>. |
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|
3673 |
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diff
changeset
|
3674 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3675 |
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diff
changeset
|
3676 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3677 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3678 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3679 |
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diff
changeset
|
3680 |
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diff
changeset
|
3681 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3682 Returns a string with a file name that can |
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diff
changeset
|
3683 be used for a temporary file. |
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changeset
|
3684 The file must be explicitly opened before its use |
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|
3685 and explicitly removed when no longer needed. |
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diff
changeset
|
3686 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3687 |
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diff
changeset
|
3688 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3689 On POSIX systems, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3690 this function also creates a file with that name, |
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diff
changeset
|
3691 to avoid security risks. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3692 (Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions |
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changeset
|
3693 in the time between getting the name and creating the file.) |
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diff
changeset
|
3694 You still have to open the file to use it |
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diff
changeset
|
3695 and to remove it (even if you do not use it). |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3696 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3697 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3698 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3699 When possible, |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3700 you may prefer to use <a href="#pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile</code></a>, |
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diff
changeset
|
3701 which automatically removes the file when the program ends. |
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diff
changeset
|
3702 |
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diff
changeset
|
3703 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3704 |
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diff
changeset
|
3705 |
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diff
changeset
|
3706 |
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diff
changeset
|
3707 |
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3708 |
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3709 <h2>6.10 – <a name="6.10">The Debug Library</a></h2> |
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3710 |
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3711 <p> |
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3712 This library provides |
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3713 the functionality of the debug interface (<a href="#4.9">§4.9</a>) to Lua programs. |
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3714 You should exert care when using this library. |
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3715 Several of its functions |
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3716 violate basic assumptions about Lua code |
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3717 (e.g., that variables local to a function |
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3718 cannot be accessed from outside; |
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3719 that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code; |
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3720 that Lua programs do not crash) |
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3721 and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code. |
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3722 Moreover, some functions in this library may be slow. |
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3723 |
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|
3724 |
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3725 <p> |
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3726 All functions in this library are provided |
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3727 inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table. |
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3728 All functions that operate over a thread |
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3729 have an optional first argument which is the |
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3730 thread to operate over. |
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3731 The default is always the current thread. |
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3732 |
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3733 |
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3734 <p> |
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3735 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3> |
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3736 |
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|
3737 |
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3738 <p> |
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3739 Enters an interactive mode with the user, |
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3740 running each string that the user enters. |
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3741 Using simple commands and other debug facilities, |
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3742 the user can inspect global and local variables, |
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3743 change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on. |
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3744 A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function, |
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3745 so that the caller continues its execution. |
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|
3746 |
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|
3747 |
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|
3748 <p> |
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3749 Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested |
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3750 within any function and so have no direct access to local variables. |
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|
3751 |
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|
3752 |
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|
3753 |
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|
3754 |
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3755 <p> |
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|
3756 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3757 |
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|
3758 |
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|
3759 <p> |
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3760 Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values: |
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3761 the current hook function, the current hook mask, |
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|
3762 and the current hook count |
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|
3763 (as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function). |
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|
3764 |
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|
3765 |
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|
3766 |
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|
3767 |
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|
3768 <p> |
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|
3769 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] f [, what])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3770 |
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|
3771 |
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|
3772 <p> |
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|
3773 Returns a table with information about a function. |
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|
3774 You can give the function directly |
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3775 or you can give a number as the value of <code>f</code>, |
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3776 which means the function running at level <code>f</code> of the call stack |
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|
3777 of the given thread: |
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|
3778 level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself); |
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|
3779 level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code> |
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|
3780 (except for tail calls, which do not count on the stack); |
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3781 and so on. |
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|
3782 If <code>f</code> is a number larger than the number of active functions, |
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|
3783 then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3784 |
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|
3785 |
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|
3786 <p> |
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|
3787 The returned table can contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>, |
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|
3788 with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in. |
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|
3789 The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available, |
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|
3790 except the table of valid lines. |
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|
3791 If present, |
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|
3792 the option '<code>f</code>' |
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|
3793 adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself. |
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|
3794 If present, |
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|
3795 the option '<code>L</code>' |
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|
3796 adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of |
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|
3797 valid lines. |
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|
3798 |
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|
3799 |
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|
3800 <p> |
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|
3801 For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns |
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3802 a table with a name for the current function, |
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3803 if a reasonable name can be found, |
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|
3804 and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code> |
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3805 returns a table with all available information |
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|
3806 about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function. |
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|
3807 |
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|
3808 |
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|
3809 |
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|
3810 |
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|
3811 <p> |
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|
3812 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] f, local)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3813 |
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|
3814 |
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3815 <p> |
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|
3816 This function returns the name and the value of the local variable |
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|
3817 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>f</code> of the stack. |
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3818 This function accesses not only explicit local variables, |
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3819 but also parameters, temporaries, etc. |
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|
3820 |
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|
3821 |
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|
3822 <p> |
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|
3823 The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on, |
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3824 following the order that they are declared in the code, |
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3825 counting only the variables that are active |
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3826 in the current scope of the function. |
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|
3827 Negative indices refer to vararg parameters; |
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3828 -1 is the first vararg parameter. |
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3829 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no variable with the given index, |
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3830 and raises an error when called with a level out of range. |
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3831 (You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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3832 |
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|
3833 |
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|
3834 <p> |
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|
3835 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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3836 represent variables with no known names |
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3837 (internal variables such as loop control variables, |
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|
3838 and variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3839 |
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|
3840 |
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|
3841 <p> |
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3842 The parameter <code>f</code> may also be a function. |
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|
3843 In that case, <code>getlocal</code> returns only the name of function parameters. |
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|
3844 |
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|
3845 |
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|
3846 |
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|
3847 |
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|
3848 <p> |
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3849 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3850 |
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|
3851 |
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|
3852 <p> |
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3853 Returns the metatable of the given <code>value</code> |
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3854 or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable. |
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|
3855 |
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|
3856 |
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|
3857 |
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|
3858 |
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3859 <p> |
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3860 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3> |
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3861 |
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|
3862 |
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3863 <p> |
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|
3864 Returns the registry table (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>). |
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|
3865 |
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|
3866 |
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|
3867 |
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|
3868 |
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|
3869 <p> |
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|
3870 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (f, up)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3871 |
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|
3872 |
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|
3873 <p> |
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|
3874 This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue |
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3875 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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|
3876 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue with the given index. |
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|
3877 |
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|
3878 |
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|
3879 <p> |
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3880 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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|
3881 represent variables with no known names |
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|
3882 (variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3883 |
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|
3884 |
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diff
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|
3885 |
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|
3886 |
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|
3887 <p> |
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|
3888 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getuservalue"><code>debug.getuservalue (u)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3889 |
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diff
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|
3890 |
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|
3891 <p> |
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|
3892 Returns the Lua value associated to <code>u</code>. |
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3893 If <code>u</code> is not a userdata, |
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|
3894 returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3895 |
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|
3896 |
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|
3897 |
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diff
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|
3898 |
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|
3899 <p> |
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|
3900 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3901 |
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|
3902 |
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|
3903 <p> |
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|
3904 Sets the given function as a hook. |
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|
3905 The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe |
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|
3906 when the hook will be called. |
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|
3907 The string mask may have any combination of the following characters, |
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|
3908 with the given meaning: |
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|
3909 |
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|
3910 <ul> |
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|
3911 <li><b>'<code>c</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li> |
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|
3912 <li><b>'<code>r</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li> |
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|
3913 <li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li> |
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|
3914 </ul><p> |
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|
3915 Moreover, |
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|
3916 with a <code>count</code> different from zero, |
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|
3917 the hook is called also after every <code>count</code> instructions. |
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|
3918 |
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|
3919 |
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|
3920 <p> |
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|
3921 When called without arguments, |
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|
3922 <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook. |
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|
3923 |
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|
3924 |
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|
3925 <p> |
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|
3926 When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string |
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|
3927 describing the event that has triggered its call: |
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3928 <code>"call"</code> (or <code>"tail call"</code>), |
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3929 <code>"return"</code>, |
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|
3930 <code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>. |
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|
3931 For line events, |
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3932 the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter. |
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|
3933 Inside a hook, |
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|
3934 you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about |
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|
3935 the running function |
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diff
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|
3936 (level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function, |
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|
3937 and level 1 is the hook function). |
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changeset
|
3938 |
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changeset
|
3939 |
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changeset
|
3940 |
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changeset
|
3941 |
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|
3942 <p> |
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|
3943 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3944 |
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|
3945 |
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|
3946 <p> |
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|
3947 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable |
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|
3948 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack. |
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|
3949 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no local |
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|
3950 variable with the given index, |
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|
3951 and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range. |
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|
3952 (You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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|
3953 Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable. |
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|
3954 |
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diff
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|
3955 |
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3956 <p> |
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3957 See <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for more information about |
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3958 variable indices and names. |
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|
3959 |
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diff
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|
3960 |
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diff
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|
3961 |
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diff
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|
3962 |
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|
3963 <p> |
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3964 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (value, table)</code></a></h3> |
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3965 |
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|
3966 |
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3967 <p> |
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3968 Sets the metatable for the given <code>value</code> to the given <code>table</code> |
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3969 (which can be <b>nil</b>). |
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3970 Returns <code>value</code>. |
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3971 |
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|
3972 |
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|
3973 |
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|
3974 |
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3975 <p> |
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3976 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (f, up, value)</code></a></h3> |
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3977 |
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|
3978 |
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3979 <p> |
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3980 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue |
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3981 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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3982 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue |
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3983 with the given index. |
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3984 Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue. |
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|
3985 |
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|
3986 |
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|
3987 |
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|
3988 |
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3989 <p> |
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3990 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setuservalue"><code>debug.setuservalue (udata, value)</code></a></h3> |
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3991 |
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|
3992 |
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3993 <p> |
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3994 Sets the given <code>value</code> as |
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3995 the Lua value associated to the given <code>udata</code>. |
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3996 <code>udata</code> must be a full userdata. |
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|
3997 |
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|
3998 |
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|
3999 <p> |
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4000 Returns <code>udata</code>. |
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|
4001 |
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|
4002 |
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|
4003 |
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|
4004 |
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|
4005 <p> |
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|
4006 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
4007 |
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|
4008 |
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4009 <p> |
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|
4010 If <code>message</code> is present but is neither a string nor <b>nil</b>, |
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4011 this function returns <code>message</code> without further processing. |
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4012 Otherwise, |
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4013 it returns a string with a traceback of the call stack. |
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4014 The optional <code>message</code> string is appended |
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4015 at the beginning of the traceback. |
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|
4016 An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level |
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|
4017 to start the traceback |
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|
4018 (default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>). |
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|
4019 |
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|
4020 |
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|
4021 |
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|
4022 |
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|
4023 <p> |
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|
4024 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvalueid"><code>debug.upvalueid (f, n)</code></a></h3> |
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|
4025 |
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|
4026 |
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|
4027 <p> |
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|
4028 Returns a unique identifier (as a light userdata) |
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|
4029 for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code> |
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|
4030 from the given function. |
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|
4031 |
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|
4032 |
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|
4033 <p> |
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|
4034 These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different |
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|
4035 closures share upvalues. |
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diff
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|
4036 Lua closures that share an upvalue |
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|
4037 (that is, that access a same external local variable) |
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|
4038 will return identical ids for those upvalue indices. |
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|
4039 |
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|
4040 |
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|
4041 |
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|
4042 |
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|
4043 <p> |
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|
4044 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvaluejoin"><code>debug.upvaluejoin (f1, n1, f2, n2)</code></a></h3> |
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|
4045 |
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diff
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|
4046 |
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|
4047 <p> |
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|
4048 Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f1</code> |
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|
4049 refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f2</code>. |
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|
4050 |
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changeset
|
4051 |
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changeset
|
4052 |
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changeset
|
4053 |
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changeset
|
4054 |
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|
4055 |
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|
4056 |
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|
4057 <h1>7 – <a name="7">Lua Standalone</a></h1> |
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|
4058 |
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|
4059 <p> |
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|
4060 Although Lua has been designed as an extension language, |
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|
4061 to be embedded in a host C program, |
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|
4062 it is also frequently used as a standalone language. |
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|
4063 An interpreter for Lua as a standalone language, |
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|
4064 called simply <code>lua</code>, |
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|
4065 is provided with the standard distribution. |
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|
4066 The standalone interpreter includes |
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|
4067 all standard libraries, including the debug library. |
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|
4068 Its usage is: |
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|
4069 |
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changeset
|
4070 <pre> |
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|
4071 lua [options] [script [args]] |
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|
4072 </pre><p> |
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diff
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|
4073 The options are: |
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|
4074 |
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diff
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|
4075 <ul> |
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|
4076 <li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>: </b> executes string <em>stat</em>;</li> |
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|
4077 <li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>: </b> "requires" <em>mod</em>;</li> |
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|
4078 <li><b><code>-i</code>: </b> enters interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li> |
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4079 <li><b><code>-v</code>: </b> prints version information;</li> |
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4080 <li><b><code>-E</code>: </b> ignores environment variables;</li> |
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4081 <li><b><code>--</code>: </b> stops handling options;</li> |
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4082 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b> executes <code>stdin</code> as a file and stops handling options.</li> |
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4083 </ul><p> |
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4084 After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>. |
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4085 When called without arguments, |
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4086 <code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code> |
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4087 when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal, |
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4088 and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise. |
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4089 |
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4090 |
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4091 <p> |
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4092 When called without option <code>-E</code>, |
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4093 the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT_5_3"><code>LUA_INIT_5_3</code></a> |
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4094 (or <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a> if the versioned name is not defined) |
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4095 before running any argument. |
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4096 If the variable content has the format <code>@<em>filename</em></code>, |
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4097 then <code>lua</code> executes the file. |
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4098 Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself. |
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4099 |
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4100 |
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4101 <p> |
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4102 When called with option <code>-E</code>, |
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4103 besides ignoring <code>LUA_INIT</code>, |
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4104 Lua also ignores |
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4105 the values of <code>LUA_PATH</code> and <code>LUA_CPATH</code>, |
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4106 setting the values of |
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4107 <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> |
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4108 with the default paths defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>. |
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4109 |
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4110 |
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4111 <p> |
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4112 All options are handled in order, except <code>-i</code> and <code>-E</code>. |
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4113 For instance, an invocation like |
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4114 |
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4115 <pre> |
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4116 $ lua -e'a=1' -e 'print(a)' script.lua |
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4117 </pre><p> |
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4118 will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then print the value of <code>a</code>, |
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4119 and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments. |
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4120 (Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.) |
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4121 |
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4122 |
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4123 <p> |
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4124 Before running any code, |
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4125 <code>lua</code> collects all command-line arguments |
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4126 in a global table called <code>arg</code>. |
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4127 The script name goes to index 0, |
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4128 the first argument after the script name goes to index 1, |
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4129 and so on. |
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4130 Any arguments before the script name |
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4131 (that is, the interpreter name plus its options) |
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4132 go to negative indices. |
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4133 For instance, in the call |
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4134 |
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4135 <pre> |
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4136 $ lua -la b.lua t1 t2 |
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4137 </pre><p> |
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4138 the table is like this: |
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4139 |
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4140 <pre> |
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4141 arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la", |
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4142 [0] = "b.lua", |
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4143 [1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" } |
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4144 </pre><p> |
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4145 If there is no script in the call, |
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4146 the interpreter name goes to index 0, |
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4147 followed by the other arguments. |
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4148 For instance, the call |
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4149 |
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4150 <pre> |
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4151 $ lua -e "print(arg[1])" |
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4152 </pre><p> |
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4153 will print "<code>-e</code>". |
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4154 If there is a script, |
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4155 the script is called with parameters |
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4156 <code>arg[1]</code>, ···, <code>arg[#arg]</code>. |
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4157 (Like all chunks in Lua, |
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4158 the script is compiled as a vararg function.) |
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4159 |
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4160 |
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4161 <p> |
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4162 In interactive mode, |
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4163 Lua repeatedly prompts and waits for a line. |
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4164 After reading a line, |
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4165 Lua first try to interpret the line as an expression. |
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4166 If it succeeds, it prints its value. |
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4167 Otherwise, it interprets the line as a statement. |
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4168 If you write an incomplete statement, |
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4169 the interpreter waits for its completion |
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4170 by issuing a different prompt. |
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4171 |
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4172 |
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4173 <p> |
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4174 In case of unprotected errors in the script, |
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4175 the interpreter reports the error to the standard error stream. |
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4176 If the error object is not a string but |
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4177 has a metamethod <code>__to_string</code>, |
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4178 the interpreter calls this metamethod to produce the final message. |
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4179 Otherwise, the interpreter converts the error object to a string |
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4180 and adds a stack traceback to it. |
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4181 |
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4182 |
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4183 <p> |
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4184 When finishing normally, |
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4185 the interpreter closes its main Lua state |
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4186 (see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>). |
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4187 The script can avoid this step by |
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4188 calling <a href="#pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit</code></a> to terminate. |
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4189 |
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4190 |
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4191 <p> |
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4192 To allow the use of Lua as a |
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4193 script interpreter in Unix systems, |
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4194 the standalone interpreter skips |
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4195 the first line of a chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>. |
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4196 Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs |
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4197 by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form, |
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4198 as in |
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4199 |
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4200 <pre> |
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|
4201 #!/usr/local/bin/lua |
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|
4202 </pre><p> |
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|
4203 (Of course, |
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|
4204 the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine. |
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|
4205 If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>, |
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|
4206 then |
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|
4207 |
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|
4208 <pre> |
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|
4209 #!/usr/bin/env lua |
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|
4210 </pre><p> |
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|
4211 is a more portable solution.) |
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|
4212 |
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|
4213 |
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|
4214 |
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|
4215 <h1>8 – <a name="8">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1> |
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4216 |
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|
4217 <p> |
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|
4218 Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program |
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4219 from Lua 5.2 to Lua 5.3. |
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|
4220 You can avoid some incompatibilities by compiling Lua with |
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|
4221 appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>). |
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4222 However, |
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4223 all these compatibility options will be removed in the future. |
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|
4224 |
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|
4225 |
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|
4226 <p> |
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|
4227 Lua versions can always change the C API in ways that |
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4228 do not imply source-code changes in a program, |
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4229 such as the numeric values for constants |
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|
4230 or the implementation of functions as macros. |
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|
4231 Therefore, |
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|
4232 you should not assume that binaries are compatible between |
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|
4233 different Lua versions. |
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|
4234 Always recompile clients of the Lua API when |
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4235 using a new version. |
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|
4236 |
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|
4237 |
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|
4238 <p> |
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|
4239 Similarly, Lua versions can always change the internal representation |
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|
4240 of precompiled chunks; |
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|
4241 precompiled chunks are not compatible between different Lua versions. |
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|
4242 |
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|
4243 |
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|
4244 <p> |
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|
4245 The standard paths in the official distribution may |
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|
4246 change between versions. |
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|
4247 |
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|
4248 |
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|
4249 |
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|
4250 <h2>8.1 – <a name="8.1">Changes in the Language</a></h2> |
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|
4251 <ul> |
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|
4252 |
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|
4253 <li> |
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|
4254 The main difference between Lua 5.2 and Lua 5.3 is the |
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|
4255 introduction of an integer subtype for numbers. |
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|
4256 Although this change should not affect "normal" computations, |
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|
4257 some computations |
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|
4258 (mainly those that involve some kind of overflow) |
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4259 can give different results. |
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|
4260 |
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|
4261 |
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|
4262 <p> |
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|
4263 You can fix these differences by forcing a number to be a float |
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|
4264 (in Lua 5.2 all numbers were float), |
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4265 in particular writing constants with an ending <code>.0</code> |
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|
4266 or using <code>x = x + 0.0</code> to convert a variable. |
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|
4267 (This recommendation is only for a quick fix |
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|
4268 for an occasional incompatibility; |
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|
4269 it is not a general guideline for good programming. |
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|
4270 For good programming, |
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|
4271 use floats where you need floats |
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|
4272 and integers where you need integers.) |
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|
4273 </li> |
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diff
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|
4274 |
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|
4275 <li> |
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|
4276 The conversion of a float to a string now adds a <code>.0</code> suffix |
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|
4277 to the result if it looks like an integer. |
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|
4278 (For instance, the float 2.0 will be printed as <code>2.0</code>, |
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|
4279 not as <code>2</code>.) |
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|
4280 You should always use an explicit format |
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|
4281 when you need a specific format for numbers. |
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|
4282 |
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|
4283 |
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|
4284 <p> |
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|
4285 (Formally this is not an incompatibility, |
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|
4286 because Lua does not specify how numbers are formatted as strings, |
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|
4287 but some programs assumed a specific format.) |
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|
4288 </li> |
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|
4289 |
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|
4290 <li> |
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|
4291 The generational mode for the garbage collector was removed. |
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|
4292 (It was an experimental feature in Lua 5.2.) |
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|
4293 </li> |
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|
4294 |
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|
4295 </ul> |
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|
4296 |
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|
4297 |
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|
4298 |
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|
4299 |
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|
4300 <h2>8.2 – <a name="8.2">Changes in the Libraries</a></h2> |
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4301 <ul> |
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|
4302 |
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4303 <li> |
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|
4304 The <code>bit32</code> library has been deprecated. |
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|
4305 It is easy to require a compatible external library or, |
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|
4306 better yet, to replace its functions with appropriate bitwise operations. |
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|
4307 (Keep in mind that <code>bit32</code> operates on 32-bit integers, |
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|
4308 while the bitwise operators in standard Lua operate on 64-bit integers.) |
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|
4309 </li> |
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|
4310 |
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|
4311 <li> |
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|
4312 The Table library now respects metamethods |
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|
4313 for setting and getting elements. |
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|
4314 </li> |
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|
4315 |
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4316 <li> |
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|
4317 The <a href="#pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs</code></a> iterator now respects metamethods and |
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4318 its <code>__ipairs</code> metamethod has been deprecated. |
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4319 </li> |
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|
4320 |
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|
4321 <li> |
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|
4322 Option names in <a href="#pdf-io.read"><code>io.read</code></a> do not have a starting '<code>*</code>' anymore. |
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|
4323 For compatibility, Lua will continue to ignore this character. |
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|
4324 </li> |
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|
4325 |
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4326 <li> |
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4327 The following functions were deprecated in the mathematical library: |
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4328 <code>atan2</code>, <code>cosh</code>, <code>sinh</code>, <code>tanh</code>, <code>pow</code>, |
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4329 <code>frexp</code>, and <code>ldexp</code>. |
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4330 You can replace <code>math.pow(x,y)</code> with <code>x^y</code>; |
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4331 you can replace <code>math.atan2</code> with <code>math.atan</code>, |
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4332 which now accepts one or two parameters; |
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4333 you can replace <code>math.ldexp(x,exp)</code> with <code>x * 2.0^exp</code>. |
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4334 For the other operations, |
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4335 you can either use an external library or |
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4336 implement them in Lua. |
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4337 </li> |
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4338 |
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4339 <li> |
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4340 The searcher for C loaders used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> |
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4341 changed the way it handles versioned names. |
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4342 Now, the version should come after the module name |
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4343 (as is usual in most other tools). |
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4344 For compatibility, that searcher still tries the old format |
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4345 if it cannot find an open function according to the new style. |
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4346 (Lua 5.2 already worked that way, |
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4347 but it did not document the change.) |
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4348 </li> |
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4349 |
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4350 </ul> |
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4351 |
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4352 |
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4353 |
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4354 |
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4355 <h2>8.3 – <a name="8.3">Changes in the API</a></h2> |
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4356 |
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4357 |
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4358 <ul> |
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4359 |
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4360 <li> |
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4361 Continuation functions now receive as parameters what they needed |
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4362 to get through <code>lua_getctx</code>, |
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4363 so <code>lua_getctx</code> has been removed. |
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4364 Adapt your code accordingly. |
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4365 </li> |
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|
4366 |
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|
4367 <li> |
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4368 Function <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> has an extra parameter, <code>strip</code>. |
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4369 Use 0 as the value of this parameter to get the old behavior. |
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4370 </li> |
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|
4371 |
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|
4372 <li> |
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4373 Functions to inject/project unsigned integers |
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4374 (<code>lua_pushunsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsignedx</code>, |
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4375 <code>luaL_checkunsigned</code>, <code>luaL_optunsigned</code>) |
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4376 were deprecated. |
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4377 Use their signed equivalents with a type cast. |
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|
4378 </li> |
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|
4379 |
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|
4380 <li> |
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|
4381 Macros to project non-default integer types |
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4382 (<code>luaL_checkint</code>, <code>luaL_optint</code>, <code>luaL_checklong</code>, <code>luaL_optlong</code>) |
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4383 were deprecated. |
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4384 Use their equivalent over <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> with a type cast |
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|
4385 (or, when possible, use <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> in your code). |
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|
4386 </li> |
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|
4387 |
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|
4388 </ul> |
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|
4389 |
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|
4390 |
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|
4391 |
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|
4392 |
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|
4393 <h1>9 – <a name="9">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1> |
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|
4394 |
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|
4395 <p> |
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|
4396 Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF. |
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4397 As usual in extended BNF, |
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4398 {A} means 0 or more As, |
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4399 and [A] means an optional A. |
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4400 (For operator precedences, see <a href="#3.4.8">§3.4.8</a>; |
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4401 for a description of the terminals |
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|
4402 Name, Numeral, |
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|
4403 and LiteralString, see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>.) |
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|
4404 |
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|
4405 |
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|
4406 |
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|
4407 |
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|
4408 <pre> |
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|
4409 |
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|
4410 chunk ::= block |
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|
4411 |
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|
4412 block ::= {stat} [retstat] |
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|
4413 |
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|
4414 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ | |
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4415 varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist | |
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4416 functioncall | |
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4417 label | |
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4418 <b>break</b> | |
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4419 <b>goto</b> Name | |
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4420 <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4421 <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4422 <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp | |
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4423 <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> | |
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|
4424 <b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4425 <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4426 <b>function</b> funcname funcbody | |
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4427 <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody | |
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4428 <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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4429 |
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4430 retstat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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4431 |
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4432 label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’ |
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4433 |
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4434 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
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4435 |
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4436 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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4437 |
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4438 var ::= Name | prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ | prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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4439 |
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4440 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
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4441 |
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4442 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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4443 |
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4444 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Numeral | LiteralString | ‘<b>...</b>’ | functiondef | |
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4445 prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp |
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4446 |
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4447 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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4448 |
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4449 functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args |
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4450 |
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4451 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ | tableconstructor | LiteralString |
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4452 |
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4453 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
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4454 |
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4455 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b> |
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4456 |
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4457 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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4458 |
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4459 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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4460 |
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4461 fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep] |
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4462 |
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4463 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
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4464 |
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4465 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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4466 |
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4467 binop ::= ‘<b>+</b>’ | ‘<b>-</b>’ | ‘<b>*</b>’ | ‘<b>/</b>’ | ‘<b>//</b>’ | ‘<b>^</b>’ | ‘<b>%</b>’ | |
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4468 ‘<b>&</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ | ‘<b>|</b>’ | ‘<b>>></b>’ | ‘<b><<</b>’ | ‘<b>..</b>’ | |
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4469 ‘<b><</b>’ | ‘<b><=</b>’ | ‘<b>></b>’ | ‘<b>>=</b>’ | ‘<b>==</b>’ | ‘<b>~=</b>’ | |
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4470 <b>and</b> | <b>or</b> |
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4471 |
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4472 unop ::= ‘<b>-</b>’ | <b>not</b> | ‘<b>#</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ |
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4473 |
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4474 </pre> |
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4475 |
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4476 <p> |
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4477 |
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4478 |
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4479 |
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4480 |
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4481 |
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4482 |
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4483 |
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4484 |
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4485 <HR> |
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4486 <SMALL CLASS="footer"> |
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4487 Last update: |
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4488 Fri Jan 16 00:58:20 BRST 2015 |
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4489 </SMALL> |
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4490 <!-- |
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4491 Last change: minor edit |
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4492 --> |
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4493 |
372 | 4494 </div> |
386
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4495 |
391
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4496 </body> |
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4497 </html> |
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4498 <% |
386
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4499 end |