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author | Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com> |
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date | Sun, 23 Jun 2019 19:50:55 -0600 |
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2 <html> |
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4 <title>Luan Reference Manual</title> |
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5 <style> |
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6 @import "site.css"; |
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7 </style> |
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8 </head> |
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9 <body> |
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11 <div small> |
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12 <a href=".">Luan</a> |
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13 / <a href="docs.html">Documentation</a> |
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14 </div> |
372 | 15 |
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16 <h1><a href="manual.html">Luan Reference Manual</a></h1> |
372 | 17 |
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18 <p small> |
372 | 19 Original copyright © 2015 Lua.org, PUC-Rio. |
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20 Freely available under the terms of the |
372 | 21 <a href="http://www.lua.org/license.html">Lua license</a>. |
22 Modified for Luan. | |
23 </p> | |
24 | |
25 <hr/> | |
26 | |
27 <h2>Contents</h2> | |
28 | |
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29 <div contents><a href="#intro">Introduction</a></div> |
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30 |
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31 <div contents> |
373 | 32 <a href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a> |
33 <ul> | |
34 <li><a href="#types">Values and Types</a></li> | |
35 <li><a href="#env">Environments</a></li> | |
36 <li><a href="#error">Error Handling</a></li> | |
37 <li><a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></li> | |
380 | 38 <li><a href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></li> |
39 </ul> | |
40 </div> | |
41 | |
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42 <div contents> |
380 | 43 <a href="#lang">The Language</a> |
44 <ul> | |
45 <li><a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></li> | |
46 <li><a href="#vars">Variables</a></li> | |
389 | 47 <li> |
48 <a href="#stmts">Statements</a> | |
49 <ul> | |
50 <li><a href="#blocks">Blocks</a></li> | |
395 | 51 <li><a href="#chunks">Chunks</a></li> |
52 <li><a href="#assignment">Assignment</a></li> | |
53 <li><a href="#control">Control Structures</a></li> | |
54 <li><a href="#for">For Statement</a></li> | |
55 <li><a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></li> | |
56 <li><a href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></li> | |
465 | 57 <li><a href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></li> |
395 | 58 </ul> |
59 </li> | |
60 <li> | |
61 <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a> | |
62 <ul> | |
63 <li><a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></li> | |
396 | 64 <li><a href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></li> |
65 <li><a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></li> | |
66 <li><a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></li> | |
67 <li><a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></li> | |
68 <li><a href="#length">The Length Operator</a></li> | |
69 <li><a href="#precedence">Precedence</a></li> | |
70 <li><a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></li> | |
417 | 71 <li><a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></li> |
72 <li><a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></li> | |
465 | 73 <li><a href="#template_expr">Template Expressions</a></li> |
389 | 74 </ul> |
75 </li> | |
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76 <li><a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></li> |
373 | 77 </ul> |
78 </div> | |
79 | |
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80 <div contents> |
468 | 81 <a href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a> |
82 <ul> | |
83 <li><a href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></li> | |
470 | 84 <li><a href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></li> |
476 | 85 <li><a href="#package_lib">Modules</a></li> |
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86 <li><a href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></li> |
567 | 87 <li><a href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></li> |
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88 <li><a href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></li> |
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89 <li><a href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></li> |
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90 <li><a href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></li> |
468 | 91 </ul> |
92 </div> | |
93 | |
372 | 94 <hr/> |
95 | |
373 | 96 |
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97 <h2 heading><a name="intro" href="#intro">Introduction</a></h2> |
372 | 98 |
99 <p>Luan is a high level programming language based on <a href="http://www.lua.org">Lua</a>. A great strength of Lua is its simplicity and Luan takes this even further, being even simpler than Lua. The goal is to provide a simple programming language for the casual programmer with as few concepts as possible so that one can quickly learn the language and then easily understand any code written in Luan.</p> | |
100 | |
101 <p>Luan is implemented in Java and is tightly coupled with Java. So it makes a great scripting language for Java programmers.</p> | |
102 | |
103 <p>Unlike Lua which is meant to be embedded, Luan is meant to be a full scripting language. This done not by adding feature to Luan, but rather by providing a complete set of libraries.</p> | |
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104 |
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105 |
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106 <h2 heading><a name="basic" href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a></h2> |
373 | 107 |
108 <p>This section describes the basic concepts of the language.</p> | |
109 | |
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110 <h3 heading><a name="types" href="#types">Values and Types</a></h3> |
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111 |
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112 <p> |
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113 Luan is a <em>dynamically typed language</em>. |
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114 This means that |
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115 variables do not have types; only values do. |
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116 There are no type definitions in the language. |
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117 All values carry their own type. |
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118 |
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119 |
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120 <p> |
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121 All values in Luan are <em>first-class values</em>. |
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122 This means that all values can be stored in variables, |
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123 passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results. |
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124 |
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125 |
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126 <p> |
373 | 127 There are eight basic types in Luan: |
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128 <em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>, |
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129 <em>string</em>, <em>binary</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>java</em>, |
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130 and <em>table</em>. |
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131 <em>Nil</em> is the type of the value <b>nil</b>, |
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132 whose main property is to be different from any other value; |
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133 it usually represents the absence of a useful value. |
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134 <em>Nil</em> is implemented as the Java value <em>null</em>. |
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135 <em>Boolean</em> is the type of the values <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>. |
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136 <em>Boolean</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Boolean</em>. |
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137 <em>Number</em> represents both |
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138 integer numbers and real (floating-point) numbers. |
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139 <em>Number</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Number</em>. Any Java subclass of <em>Number</em> is allowed and this is invisible to the Luan user. Operations on numbers follow the same rules of |
373 | 140 the underlying Java implementation. |
141 | |
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142 <em>String</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>String</em>. |
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143 <em>Binary</em> is implemented as the Java type <em>byte[]</em>. |
373 | 144 |
145 | |
146 <p> | |
147 Luan can call (and manipulate) functions written in Luan and | |
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148 functions written in Java (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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149 Both are represented by the type <em>function</em>. |
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150 |
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151 |
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152 <p> |
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153 The type <em>java</em> is provided to allow arbitrary Java objects to |
373 | 154 be stored in Luan variables. |
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155 A <em>java</em> value is a Java object that isn't one of the standard Luan types. |
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156 Java values have no predefined operations in Luan, |
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157 except assignment and identity test. |
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158 Java values are useful when Java access is enabled in Luan |
373 | 159 |
160 | |
161 | |
162 <p> | |
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163 The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays, |
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164 that is, arrays that can be indexed not only with numbers, |
373 | 165 but with any Luan value except <b>nil</b>. |
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166 Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>; |
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167 that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>). |
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168 Any key with value <b>nil</b> is not considered part of the table. |
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169 Conversely, any key that is not part of a table has |
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170 an associated value <b>nil</b>. |
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171 |
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172 |
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173 <p> |
373 | 174 Tables are the sole data-structuring mechanism in Luan; |
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175 they can be used to represent ordinary arrays, sequences, |
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176 symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc. |
373 | 177 To represent records, Luan uses the field name as an index. |
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178 The language supports this representation by |
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179 providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>. |
373 | 180 There are several convenient ways to create tables in Luan |
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181 (see <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>). |
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182 |
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183 |
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184 <p> |
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185 We use the term <em>sequence</em> to denote a table where |
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186 the set of all positive numeric keys is equal to {1..<em>n</em>} |
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187 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>, |
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188 which is called the length of the sequence (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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189 |
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190 |
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191 <p> |
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192 Like indices, |
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193 the values of table fields can be of any type. |
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194 In particular, |
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195 because functions are first-class values, |
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196 table fields can contain functions. |
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197 Thus tables can also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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198 |
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199 |
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200 <p> |
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201 The indexing of tables follows |
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202 the definition of raw equality in the language. |
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203 The expressions <code>a[i]</code> and <code>a[j]</code> |
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204 denote the same table element |
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205 if and only if <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> are raw equal |
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206 (that is, equal without metamethods). |
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207 In particular, floats with integral values |
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208 are equal to their respective integers |
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209 (e.g., <code>1.0 == 1</code>). |
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210 |
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211 |
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212 <p> |
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213 Luan values are <em>objects</em>: |
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214 variables do not actually <em>contain</em> values, |
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215 only <em>references</em> to them. |
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216 Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns |
373 | 217 always manipulate references to values; |
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218 these operations do not imply any kind of copy. |
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219 |
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220 |
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221 <p> |
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222 The library function <a href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type</code></a> returns a string describing the type |
478 | 223 of a given value. |
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224 |
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225 |
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226 |
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227 |
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228 |
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229 <h3 heading><a name="env" href="#env">Environments</a></h3> |
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230 |
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231 <p> |
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232 The environment of a chunk starts with only one local variable: <code><a href="#require">require</a></code>. This function is used to load and access libraries and other modules. All other variables must be added to the environment using <a href="http://localhost:8080/manual.html#local_stmt">local declarations</a>. |
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233 |
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234 <p> |
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235 As will be discussed in <a href="#vars">Variables</a> and <a href=#assignment">Assignment</a>, |
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236 any reference to a free name |
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237 (that is, a name not bound to any declaration) <code>var</code> |
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238 can be syntactically translated to <code>_ENV.var</code> if <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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239 |
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240 |
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241 <h3 heading><a name="error" href="#error">Error Handling</a></h3> |
373 | 242 |
243 <p> | |
244 Luan code can explicitly generate an error by calling the | |
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245 <a href="#Luan.error"><code>error</code></a> function. |
373 | 246 If you need to catch errors in Luan, |
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247 you can use <a href="#Luan.pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> or <a href="#Luan.try"><code>try</code></a> |
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248 to call a given function in <em>protected mode</em>. |
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249 |
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250 |
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251 <p> |
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252 Whenever there is an error, |
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253 an <em>error table</em> |
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254 is propagated with information about the error. |
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255 See <a href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error</code></a>. |
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256 |
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257 |
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258 |
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259 <h3 heading><a name="meta" href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></h3> |
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260 |
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261 <p> |
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262 Every table in Luan can have a <em>metatable</em>. |
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263 This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Luan table |
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264 that defines the behavior of the original value |
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265 under certain special operations. |
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266 You can change several aspects of the behavior |
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267 of operations over a value by setting specific fields in its metatable. |
373 | 268 For instance, when a table is the operand of an addition, |
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269 Luan checks for a function in the field "<code>__add</code>" of the table's metatable. |
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270 If it finds one, |
373 | 271 Luan calls this function to perform the addition. |
272 | |
273 | |
274 <p> | |
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275 The keys in a metatable are derived from the <em>event</em> names; |
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276 the corresponding values are called <ii>metamethods</em>. |
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277 In the previous example, the event is <code>"add"</code> |
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278 and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition. |
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279 |
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280 |
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281 <p> |
373 | 282 You can query the metatable of any table |
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283 using the <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a> function. |
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284 |
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285 |
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286 <p> |
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287 You can replace the metatable of tables |
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288 using the <a href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>set_metatable</code></a> function. |
373 | 289 |
290 | |
291 <p> | |
292 A metatable controls how a table behaves in | |
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293 arithmetic operations, bitwise operations, |
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294 order comparisons, concatenation, length operation, calls, and indexing. |
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295 |
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296 |
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297 <p> |
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298 A detailed list of events controlled by metatables is given next. |
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299 Each operation is identified by its corresponding event name. |
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300 The key for each event is a string with its name prefixed by |
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301 two underscores, '<code>__</code>'; |
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302 for instance, the key for operation "add" is the |
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303 string "<code>__add</code>". |
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304 Note that queries for metamethods are always raw; |
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305 the access to a metamethod does not invoke other metamethods. |
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306 You can emulate how Luan queries a metamethod for an object <code>obj</code> |
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307 with the following code: |
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308 |
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309 <pre> |
373 | 310 raw_get(get_metatable(obj) or {}, "__" .. event_name) |
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311 </pre> |
373 | 312 |
313 <p> | |
314 Here are the events: | |
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315 |
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316 <ul> |
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317 |
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318 <li><p><b>"add": </b> |
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319 the <code>+</code> operation. |
373 | 320 |
321 If any operand for an addition is a table, | |
322 Luan will try to call a metamethod. | |
323 First, Luan will check the first operand (even if it is valid). | |
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324 If that operand does not define a metamethod for the "<code>__add</code>" event, |
373 | 325 then Luan will check the second operand. |
326 If Luan can find a metamethod, | |
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327 it calls the metamethod with the two operands as arguments, |
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328 and the result of the call |
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329 (adjusted to one value) |
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330 is the result of the operation. |
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331 Otherwise, |
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332 it raises an error. |
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333 </li> |
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334 |
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335 <li><p><b>"sub": </b> |
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336 the <code>-</code> operation. |
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337 |
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338 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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339 </li> |
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340 |
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341 <li><p><b>"mul": </b> |
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342 the <code>*</code> operation. |
371
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343 |
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344 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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345 </li> |
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346 |
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347 <li><p><b>"div": </b> |
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348 the <code>/</code> operation. |
371
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349 |
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350 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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351 </li> |
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352 |
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353 <li><p><b>"mod": </b> |
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354 the <code>%</code> operation. |
371
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355 |
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356 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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357 </li> |
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358 |
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359 <li><p><b>"pow": </b> |
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360 the <code>^</code> (exponentiation) operation. |
371
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361 |
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362 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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363 </li> |
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364 |
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365 <li><p><b>"unm": </b> |
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366 the <code>-</code> (unary minus) operation. |
371
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367 |
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368 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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369 </li> |
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370 |
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371 <li><p><b>"concat": </b> |
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372 the <code>..</code> (concatenation) operation. |
373 | 373 |
374 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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375 </li> |
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376 |
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377 <li><p><b>"len": </b> |
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378 the <code>#</code> (length) operation. |
373 | 379 |
371
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380 If there is a metamethod, |
373 | 381 Luan calls it with the object as argument, |
371
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382 and the result of the call |
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383 (always adjusted to one value) |
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384 is the result of the operation. |
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385 If there is no metamethod but the object is a table, |
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386 then Luan uses the table length operation (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
373 | 387 Otherwise, Luan raises an error. |
371
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388 </li> |
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389 |
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390 <li><p><b>"eq": </b> |
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391 the <code>==</code> (equal) operation. |
371
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392 |
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393 Behavior similar to the "add" operation, |
373 | 394 except that Luan will try a metamethod only when the values |
395 being compared are both tables | |
371
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396 and they are not primitively equal. |
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397 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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398 </li> |
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399 |
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400 <li><p><b>"lt": </b> |
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401 the <code><</code> (less than) operation. |
373 | 402 |
403 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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404 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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405 </li> |
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406 |
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407 <li><p><b>"le": </b> |
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408 the <code><=</code> (less equal) operation. |
371
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409 |
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410 Unlike other operations, |
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411 The less-equal operation can use two different events. |
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412 First, Luan looks for the "<code>__le</code>" metamethod in both operands, |
371
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413 like in the "lt" operation. |
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414 If it cannot find such a metamethod, |
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415 then it will try the "<code>__lt</code>" event, |
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416 assuming that <code>a <= b</code> is equivalent to <code>not (b < a)</code>. |
371
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417 As with the other comparison operators, |
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418 the result is always a boolean. |
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419 </li> |
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420 |
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421 <li><p><b>"index": </b> |
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422 The indexing access <code>table[key]</code>. |
373 | 423 |
424 This event happens | |
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425 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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426 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
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427 |
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428 |
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429 <p> |
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430 Despite the name, |
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431 the metamethod for this event can be any type. |
371
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432 If it is a function, |
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433 it is called with <code>table</code> and <code>key</code> as arguments. |
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434 Otherwise |
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435 the final result is the result of indexing this metamethod object with <code>key</code>. |
371
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436 (This indexing is regular, not raw, |
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437 and therefore can trigger another metamethod if the metamethod object is a table.) |
371
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438 </li> |
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439 |
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440 <li><p><b>"new_index": </b> |
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441 The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>. |
371
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442 |
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443 Like the index event, |
373 | 444 this event happens when |
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445 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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446 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
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447 |
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448 |
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449 <p> |
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450 Like with indexing, |
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451 the metamethod for this event can be either a function or a table. |
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452 If it is a function, |
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453 it is called with <code>table</code>, <code>key</code>, and <code>value</code> as arguments. |
371
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454 If it is a table, |
373 | 455 Luan does an indexing assignment to this table with the same key and value. |
371
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456 (This assignment is regular, not raw, |
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457 and therefore can trigger another metamethod.) |
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458 |
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459 |
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460 <p> |
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461 Whenever there is a "new_index" metamethod, |
373 | 462 Luan does not perform the primitive assignment. |
371
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463 (If necessary, |
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464 the metamethod itself can call <a href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>raw_set</code></a> |
371
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465 to do the assignment.) |
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466 </li> |
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467 |
1272 | 468 <li><p><b>"gc":</b> |
469 This is when a table is garbage collected. When the table's <a href="https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#finalize()">finalize</a> method is called by the Java garbage collector, if there is a "<code>__gc</code>" metamethod then it is called with the table as a parameter. | |
470 | |
471 </li> | |
472 | |
371
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473 </ul> |
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474 |
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475 |
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476 |
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477 |
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478 <h3 heading><a name="gc" href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></h3> |
380 | 479 |
480 <p> | |
481 Luan uses Java's garbage collection. | |
482 | |
483 | |
484 | |
485 | |
486 | |
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487 <h2 heading><a name="lang" href="#lang">The Language</a></h2> |
380 | 488 |
489 <p> | |
490 This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Luan. | |
371
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491 In other words, |
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492 this section describes |
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493 which tokens are valid, |
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494 how they can be combined, |
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495 and what their combinations mean. |
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496 |
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497 |
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498 <p> |
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499 Language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation, |
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500 in which |
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501 {<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and |
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502 [<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>. |
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503 Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal, |
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504 keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>, |
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505 and other terminal symbols are shown like ‘<b>=</b>’. |
380 | 506 The complete syntax of Luan can be found in <a href="#9">§9</a> |
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507 at the end of this manual. |
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508 |
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509 |
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510 |
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511 <h3 heading><a name="lex" href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></h3> |
380 | 512 |
513 <p> | |
514 Luan ignores spaces and comments | |
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515 between lexical elements (tokens), |
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516 except as delimiters between names and keywords. |
685 | 517 Luan considers the end of a line to be the end of a statement. This catches errors and encourages readability. If you want to continue a statement on another line, you can use a backslash followed by a newline which will be treated as white space. |
562
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518 |
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519 <p> |
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520 <em>Names</em> |
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521 (also called <em>identifiers</em>) |
380 | 522 in Luan can be any string of letters, |
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523 digits, and underscores, |
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524 not beginning with a digit. |
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525 Identifiers are used to name variables, table fields, and labels. |
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526 |
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527 |
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528 <p> |
562
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529 The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved |
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530 and cannot be used as names: |
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531 |
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532 |
562
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533 <pre> |
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534 and break do else elseif end |
1092 | 535 end_do end_for end_function end_if end_while |
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536 false for function goto if in |
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537 local nil not or repeat return |
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538 then true until while |
562
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539 </pre> |
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540 |
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541 <p> |
380 | 542 Luan is a case-sensitive language: |
562
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543 <code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code> |
371
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544 are two different, valid names. |
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545 |
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546 |
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547 <p> |
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548 The following strings denote other tokens: |
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549 |
562
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550 <pre> |
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551 + - * / % ^ # |
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552 & ~ | << >> // |
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553 == ~= <= >= < > = |
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554 ( ) { } [ ] :: |
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555 ; : , . .. ... |
562
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556 </pre> |
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557 |
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558 <p> |
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559 <em>Literal strings</em> |
371
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560 can be delimited by matching single or double quotes, |
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561 and can contain the following C-like escape sequences: |
562
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562 '<code>\a</code>' (bell), |
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563 '<code>\b</code>' (backspace), |
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564 '<code>\f</code>' (form feed), |
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565 '<code>\n</code>' (newline), |
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566 '<code>\r</code>' (carriage return), |
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567 '<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab), |
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568 '<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab), |
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569 '<code>\\</code>' (backslash), |
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570 '<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]), |
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571 and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]). |
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572 A backslash followed by a real newline |
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573 results in a newline in the string. |
562
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574 The escape sequence '<code>\z</code>' skips the following span |
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575 of white-space characters, |
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576 including line breaks; |
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577 it is particularly useful to break and indent a long literal string |
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578 into multiple lines without adding the newlines and spaces |
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579 into the string contents. |
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580 |
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581 |
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582 <p> |
380 | 583 Luan can specify any character in a literal string by its numerical value. |
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584 This can be done |
562
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585 with the escape sequence <code>\x<em>XX</em></code>, |
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586 where <em>XX</em> is a sequence of exactly two hexadecimal digits, |
793 | 587 or with the escape sequence <code>\u<em>XXXX</em></code>, |
588 where <em>XXXX</em> is a sequence of exactly four hexadecimal digits, | |
562
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589 or with the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>, |
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590 where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits. |
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591 (Note that if a decimal escape sequence is to be followed by a digit, |
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592 it must be expressed using exactly three digits.) |
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593 |
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594 |
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595 <p> |
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596 Literal strings can also be defined using a long format |
562
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597 enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>. |
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598 We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening |
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599 square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another |
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600 opening square bracket. |
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601 So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>, |
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602 an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>, |
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603 and so on. |
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604 A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly; |
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605 for instance, |
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606 a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>. |
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607 A <em>long literal</em> starts with an opening long bracket of any level and |
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608 ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level. |
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609 It can contain any text except a closing bracket of the same level. |
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610 Literals in this bracketed form can run for several lines, |
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611 do not interpret any escape sequences, |
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612 and ignore long brackets of any other level. |
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613 Any kind of end-of-line sequence |
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614 (carriage return, newline, carriage return followed by newline, |
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615 or newline followed by carriage return) |
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616 is converted to a simple newline. |
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617 |
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618 |
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619 <p> |
380 | 620 Any character in a literal string not |
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621 explicitly affected by the previous rules represents itself. |
380 | 622 However, Luan opens files for parsing in text mode, |
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623 and the system file functions may have problems with |
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624 some control characters. |
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625 So, it is safer to represent |
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626 non-text data as a quoted literal with |
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627 explicit escape sequences for non-text characters. |
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628 |
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629 |
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630 <p> |
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631 For convenience, |
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632 when the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline, |
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633 the newline is not included in the string. |
380 | 634 As an example |
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635 the five literal strings below denote the same string: |
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636 |
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637 <pre> |
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638 a = 'alo\n123"' |
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639 a = "alo\n123\"" |
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640 a = '\97lo\10\04923"' |
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641 a = [[alo |
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642 123"]] |
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643 a = [==[ |
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644 alo |
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645 123"]==] |
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646 </pre> |
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647 |
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648 <p> |
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649 A <em>numerical constant</em> (or <em>numeral</em>) |
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650 can be written with an optional fractional part |
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651 and an optional decimal exponent, |
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652 marked by a letter '<code>e</code>' or '<code>E</code>'. |
380 | 653 Luan also accepts hexadecimal constants, |
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654 which start with <code>0x</code> or <code>0X</code>. |
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655 Hexadecimal constants also accept an optional fractional part |
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656 plus an optional binary exponent, |
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657 marked by a letter '<code>p</code>' or '<code>P</code>'. |
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658 A numeric constant with a fractional dot or an exponent |
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659 denotes a float; |
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660 otherwise it denotes an integer. |
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661 Examples of valid integer constants are |
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662 |
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663 <pre> |
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664 3 345 0xff 0xBEBADA |
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665 </pre> |
382 | 666 |
667 <p> | |
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668 Examples of valid float constants are |
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669 |
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670 <pre> |
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671 3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 34e1 |
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672 0x0.1E 0xA23p-4 0X1.921FB54442D18P+1 |
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673 </pre> |
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674 |
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675 <p> |
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676 A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>) |
371
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677 anywhere outside a string. |
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678 If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket, |
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679 the comment is a <em>short comment</em>, |
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680 which runs until the end of the line. |
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681 Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>, |
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682 which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket. |
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683 Long comments are frequently used to disable code temporarily. |
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684 |
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685 |
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686 |
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687 |
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688 |
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689 <h3 heading><a name="vars" href="#vars">Variables</a></h3> |
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690 |
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691 <p> |
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692 Variables are places that store values. |
380 | 693 There are three kinds of variables in Luan: |
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694 global variables, local variables, and table fields. |
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695 |
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696 <p> |
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697 A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable |
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698 (or a function's formal parameter, |
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699 which is a particular kind of local variable): |
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700 |
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701 <pre> |
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702 var ::= Name |
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703 </pre> |
382 | 704 |
705 <p> | |
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706 Name denotes identifiers, as defined in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>. |
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707 |
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708 <p> |
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709 Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>: |
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710 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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711 defined inside their scope (see <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>). |
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712 |
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713 |
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714 <p> |
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715 Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>. |
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716 |
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717 <p> |
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718 Square brackets are used to index a table: |
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719 |
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720 <pre> |
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721 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ |
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722 </pre> |
382 | 723 |
724 <p> | |
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725 The meaning of accesses to table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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726 An access to an indexed variable <code>t[i]</code> is equivalent to |
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727 a call <code>gettable_event(t,i)</code>. |
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728 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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729 <code>gettable_event</code> function. |
380 | 730 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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731 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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732 |
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733 |
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734 <p> |
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735 The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for |
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736 <code>var["Name"]</code>: |
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737 |
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738 <pre> |
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739 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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740 </pre> |
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741 |
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742 <p> |
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743 Global variables are not available by default. To enable global variable, you must define <code>_ENV</code> as a local variable whose value is a table. If <code>_ENV</code> is not defined, then an unrecognized variable name will produce a compile error. If <code>_ENV</code> is defined then an access to an unrecognized variable name will be consider a global variable. So then an acces to global variable <code>x</code> |
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744 is equivalent to <code>_ENV.x</code>. |
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745 Due to the way that chunks are compiled, |
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746 <code>_ENV</code> is never a global name (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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747 |
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748 |
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749 |
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750 |
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751 |
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752 <h3 heading><a name="stmts" href="#stmts">Statements</a></h3> |
389 | 753 |
754 <p> | |
755 Luan supports an almost conventional set of statements, | |
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756 similar to those in Pascal or C. |
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757 This set includes |
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758 assignments, control structures, function calls, |
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759 and variable declarations. |
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760 |
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761 |
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762 |
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763 <h4 heading><a name="blocks" href="#blocks">Blocks</a></h4> |
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764 |
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765 <p> |
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766 A block is a list of statements, |
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767 which are executed sequentially: |
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768 |
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769 <pre> |
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770 block ::= {stat} |
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771 </pre> |
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772 |
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773 <p> |
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774 Luan has <em>empty statements</em> |
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775 that allow you to separate statements with semicolons, |
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776 start a block with a semicolon |
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777 or write two semicolons in sequence: |
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778 |
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779 <pre> |
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780 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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781 </pre> |
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782 |
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783 <p> |
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784 A block can be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement: |
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785 |
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786 <pre> |
1092 | 787 stat ::= <b>do</b> block end_do |
788 end_do ::= <b>end_do</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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789 </pre> |
389 | 790 |
791 <p> | |
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792 Explicit blocks are useful |
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793 to control the scope of variable declarations. |
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794 Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to |
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795 add a <b>return</b> statement in the middle |
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796 of another block (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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797 |
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798 |
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799 |
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800 |
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801 |
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802 <h4 heading><a name="chunks" href="#chunks">Chunks</a></h4> |
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803 |
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804 <p> |
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805 The unit of compilation of Luan is called a <em>chunk</em>. |
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806 Syntactically, |
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807 a chunk is simply a block: |
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808 |
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809 <pre> |
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810 chunk ::= block |
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811 </pre> |
395 | 812 |
813 <p> | |
814 Luan handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function | |
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815 with a variable number of arguments |
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816 (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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817 As such, chunks can define local variables, |
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818 receive arguments, and return values. |
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819 |
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820 |
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821 <p> |
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822 A chunk can be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program. |
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823 To execute a chunk, |
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824 Luan first <em>loads</em> it, |
395 | 825 compiling the chunk's code, |
826 and then Luan executes the compiled code. | |
827 | |
828 | |
829 | |
830 | |
831 | |
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832 <h4 heading><a name="assignment" href="#assignment">Assignment</a></h4> |
395 | 833 |
834 <p> | |
835 Luan allows multiple assignments. | |
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836 Therefore, the syntax for assignment |
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837 defines a list of variables on the left side |
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838 and a list of expressions on the right side. |
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839 The elements in both lists are separated by commas: |
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840 |
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841 <pre> |
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842 stat ::= varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist |
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843 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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844 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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845 </pre> |
395 | 846 |
847 <p> | |
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848 Expressions are discussed in <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>. |
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849 |
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850 |
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851 <p> |
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852 Before the assignment, |
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853 the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of |
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854 the list of variables. |
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855 If there are more values than needed, |
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856 the excess values are thrown away. |
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857 If there are fewer values than needed, |
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858 the list is extended with as many <b>nil</b>'s as needed. |
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859 If the list of expressions ends with a function call, |
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860 then all values returned by that call enter the list of values, |
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861 before the adjustment |
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862 (except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>). |
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863 |
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864 |
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865 <p> |
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866 The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions |
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867 and only then the assignments are performed. |
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868 Thus the code |
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869 |
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870 <pre> |
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871 i = 3 |
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872 i, a[i] = i+1, 20 |
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873 </pre> |
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874 |
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875 <p> |
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876 sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code> |
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877 because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3) |
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878 before it is assigned 4. |
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879 Similarly, the line |
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880 |
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881 <pre> |
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882 x, y = y, x |
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883 </pre> |
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884 |
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885 <p> |
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886 exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>, |
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887 and |
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888 |
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889 <pre> |
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890 x, y, z = y, z, x |
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891 </pre> |
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892 |
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893 <p> |
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894 cyclically permutes the values of <code>x</code>, <code>y</code>, and <code>z</code>. |
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895 |
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896 |
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897 <p> |
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898 The meaning of assignments to global variables |
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899 and table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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900 An assignment to an indexed variable <code>t[i] = val</code> is equivalent to |
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901 <code>settable_event(t,i,val)</code>. |
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902 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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903 <code>settable_event</code> function. |
395 | 904 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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905 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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906 |
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907 |
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908 <p> |
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909 An assignment to a global name <code>x = val</code> |
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910 is equivalent to the assignment |
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911 <code>_ENV.x = val</code> (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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912 Global names are only available when <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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913 |
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914 |
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915 |
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916 <h4 heading><a name="control" href="#control">Control Structures</a></h4> |
395 | 917 |
918 <p> | |
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919 The control structures |
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920 <b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and |
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921 familiar syntax: |
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922 |
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923 <pre> |
1092 | 924 stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_while |
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925 stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
1092 | 926 stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] end_if |
927 end_while ::= <b>end_while</b> | <b>end</b> | |
928 end_if ::= <b>end_if</b> | <b>end</b> | |
562
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929 </pre> |
395 | 930 |
931 <p> | |
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932 Luan also has a <b>for</b> statement (see <a href="#for">For Statement</a>). |
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933 |
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934 |
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935 <p> |
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936 The condition expression of a |
395 | 937 control structure must be a boolean. |
938 Any other value type will produce an error. | |
939 This helps catch errors and makes code more readable. | |
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940 |
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941 |
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942 <p> |
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943 In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop, |
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944 the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword, |
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945 but only after the condition. |
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946 So, the condition can refer to local variables |
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947 declared inside the loop block. |
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948 |
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949 |
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950 <p> |
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951 The <b>break</b> statement terminates the execution of a |
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952 <b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop, |
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953 skipping to the next statement after the loop: |
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954 |
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955 |
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956 <pre> |
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957 stat ::= <b>break</b> |
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958 </pre> |
395 | 959 |
960 <p> | |
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961 A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop. |
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962 |
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963 |
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964 <p> |
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965 The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values |
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966 from a function or a chunk |
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967 (which is an anonymous function). |
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968 |
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969 Functions can return more than one value, |
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970 so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is |
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971 |
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972 <pre> |
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973 stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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974 </pre> |
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975 |
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976 |
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977 |
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978 |
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979 <h4 heading><a name="for" href="#for">For Statement</a></h4> |
395 | 980 |
981 <p> | |
982 The <b>for</b> statement works over functions, | |
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983 called <em>iterators</em>. |
395 | 984 On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value, |
985 stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>. | |
986 The <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax: | |
987 | |
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988 <pre> |
1092 | 989 stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_for |
395 | 990 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
1092 | 991 end_for ::= <b>end_for</b> | <b>end</b> |
562
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992 </pre> |
395 | 993 |
994 <p> | |
995 A <b>for</b> statement like | |
996 | |
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997 <pre> |
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998 for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>exp</em> do <em>block</em> end |
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999 </pre> |
395 | 1000 |
1001 <p> | |
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1002 is equivalent to the code: |
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1003 |
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1004 <pre> |
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1005 do |
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1006 local <em>f</em> = <em>exp</em> |
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1007 while true do |
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1008 local <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> = <em>f</em>() |
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1009 if <em>var_1</em> == nil then break end |
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1010 <em>block</em> |
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1011 end |
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1012 end |
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1013 </pre> |
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1014 |
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1015 <p> |
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1016 Note the following: |
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1017 |
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1018 <ul> |
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1019 |
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1020 <li> |
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1021 <code><em>exp</em></code> is evaluated only once. |
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1022 Its result is an <em>iterator</em> function. |
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1023 </li> |
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1024 |
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1025 <li> |
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1026 <code><em>f</em></code> is an invisible variable. |
395 | 1027 The name is here for explanatory purposes only. |
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1028 </li> |
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1029 |
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1030 <li> |
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1031 You can use <b>break</b> to exit a <b>for</b> loop. |
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1032 </li> |
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1033 |
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1034 <li> |
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1035 The loop variables <code><em>var_i</em></code> are local to the loop; |
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1036 you cannot use their values after the <b>for</b> ends. |
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1037 If you need these values, |
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1038 then assign them to other variables before breaking or exiting the loop. |
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1039 </li> |
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1040 |
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1041 </ul> |
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1042 |
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1043 |
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1044 |
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1045 |
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1046 <h4 heading><a name="fn_stmt" href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></h4> |
395 | 1047 |
1048 <p> | |
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1049 To allow possible side-effects, |
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1050 function calls can be executed as statements: |
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1051 |
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1052 <pre> |
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1053 stat ::= functioncall |
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1054 </pre> |
395 | 1055 |
1056 <p> | |
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1057 In this case, all returned values are thrown away. |
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1058 Function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>. |
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1059 |
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1060 |
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1061 |
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1062 <h4 heading><a name="local_stmt" href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></h4> |
395 | 1063 |
1064 <p> | |
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1065 Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block. |
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1066 The declaration can include an initial assignment: |
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1067 |
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1068 <pre> |
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1069 stat ::= <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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1070 </pre> |
395 | 1071 |
1072 <p> | |
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1073 If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics |
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1074 of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#assignment">Assignment</a>). |
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1075 Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>. |
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1076 |
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1077 |
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1078 <p> |
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1079 A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#chunks">Chunks</a>), |
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1080 and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block. |
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1081 |
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1082 |
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1083 <p> |
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1084 The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>. |
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1085 |
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1086 |
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1087 <h4 heading><a name="template_stmt" href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></h4> |
465 | 1088 |
1089 <p>Template statements are based on <a href="#template_expr">template exressions</a> and provide the full equivalent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a> but in a general way. Template statements write the equivalent template exression to standard output. For example:</p> | |
1090 | |
1325
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1091 <pre> |
465 | 1092 local name = "Bob" |
1093 %> | |
469 | 1094 Hello <%= name %>! |
1095 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1096 <% |
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1097 </pre> |
465 | 1098 |
1099 <p>is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1100 | |
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1101 <pre> |
465 | 1102 local name = "Bob" |
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1103 require("luan:Io.luan").stdout.write( %> |
469 | 1104 Hello <%= name %>! |
1105 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1106 <% ) |
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1107 </pre> |
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1108 |
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1109 |
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1110 |
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1111 <h3 heading><a name="expressions" href="#expressions">Expressions</a></h3> |
395 | 1112 |
1113 <p> | |
1114 The basic expressions in Luan are the following: | |
1115 | |
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1116 <pre> |
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1117 exp ::= prefixexp |
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1118 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> |
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1119 exp ::= Numeral |
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1120 exp ::= LiteralString |
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1121 exp ::= functiondef |
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1122 exp ::= tableconstructor |
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1123 exp ::= ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1124 exp ::= exp binop exp |
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1125 exp ::= unop exp |
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1126 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1127 </pre> |
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1128 |
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1129 <p> |
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1130 Numerals and literal strings are explained in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>; |
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1131 variables are explained in <a href="#vars">Variables</a>; |
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1132 function definitions are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>; |
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1133 function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>; |
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1134 table constructors are explained in <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>. |
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1135 Vararg expressions, |
562
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1136 denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used when |
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1137 directly inside a vararg function; |
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1138 they are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>. |
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1139 |
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1140 |
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1141 <p> |
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1142 Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1143 relational operators (see <a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1144 and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a>). |
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1145 Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1146 the unary logical <b>not</b> (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1147 and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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1148 |
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1149 |
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1150 <p> |
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1151 Both function calls and vararg expressions can result in multiple values. |
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1152 If a function call is used as a statement (see <a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a>), |
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1153 then its return list is adjusted to zero elements, |
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1154 thus discarding all returned values. |
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1155 If an expression is used as the last (or the only) element |
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1156 of a list of expressions, |
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1157 then no adjustment is made |
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1158 (unless the expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1159 In all other contexts, |
395 | 1160 Luan adjusts the result list to one element, |
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1161 either discarding all values except the first one |
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1162 or adding a single <b>nil</b> if there are no values. |
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1163 |
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1164 |
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1165 <p> |
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1166 Here are some examples: |
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1167 |
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1168 <pre> |
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1169 f() -- adjusted to 0 results |
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1170 g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1171 g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f() |
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1172 a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil) |
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1173 a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg parameter, b gets |
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1174 -- the second (both a and b can get nil if there |
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1175 -- is no corresponding vararg parameter) |
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1176 |
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1177 a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results |
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1178 a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results |
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1179 return f() -- returns all results from f() |
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1180 return ... -- returns all received vararg parameters |
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1181 return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f() |
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1182 {f()} -- creates a list with all results from f() |
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1183 {...} -- creates a list with all vararg parameters |
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1184 {f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1185 </pre> |
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1186 |
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1187 <p> |
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1188 Any expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value. |
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1189 Thus, |
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1190 <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value, |
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1191 even if <code>f</code> returns several values. |
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1192 (The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code> |
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1193 or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.) |
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1194 |
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1195 |
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1196 |
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1197 <h4 heading><a name="arithmetic" href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></h4> |
395 | 1198 |
1199 <p> | |
1200 Luan supports the following arithmetic operators: | |
371
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1201 |
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1202 <ul> |
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1203 <li><b><code>+</code>: </b>addition</li> |
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1204 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>subtraction</li> |
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1205 <li><b><code>*</code>: </b>multiplication</li> |
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1206 <li><b><code>/</code>: </b>division</li> |
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1207 <li><b><code>%</code>: </b>modulo</li> |
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1208 <li><b><code>^</code>: </b>exponentiation</li> |
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1209 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>unary minus</li> |
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1210 </ul> |
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1211 |
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1212 <p> |
395 | 1213 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and unary minus are the same as these operators in Java. Exponentiation uses Java's <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Math.html#pow(double,%20double)">Math.pow</a> function. |
371
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1214 |
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1215 <p> |
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1216 Modulo is defined as the remainder of a division |
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1217 that rounds the quotient towards minus infinite (floor division). |
395 | 1218 (The Java modulo operator is not used.) |
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1219 |
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1220 |
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1221 |
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1222 <h4 heading><a name="conversions" href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></h4> |
396 | 1223 |
1224 <p> | |
465 | 1225 Luan generally avoids automatic conversions. |
1226 String concatenation automatically converts all of its arguments to strings. | |
1227 | |
1228 <p> | |
1229 Luan provides library functions for explicit type conversions. | |
371
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1230 |
396 | 1231 |
1232 | |
1233 | |
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1234 <h4 heading><a name="relational" href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1235 |
1236 <p> | |
1237 Luan supports the following relational operators: | |
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1238 |
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1239 <ul> |
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1240 <li><b><code>==</code>: </b>equality</li> |
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1241 <li><b><code>~=</code>: </b>inequality</li> |
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1242 <li><b><code><</code>: </b>less than</li> |
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1243 <li><b><code>></code>: </b>greater than</li> |
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1244 <li><b><code><=</code>: </b>less or equal</li> |
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1245 <li><b><code>>=</code>: </b>greater or equal</li> |
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1246 </ul><p> |
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1247 These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1248 |
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1249 |
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1250 <p> |
562
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1251 Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands. |
371
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1252 If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>. |
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1253 Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared. |
396 | 1254 Strings, numbers, and binary values are compared in the obvious way (by value). |
1255 | |
1256 <p> | |
1257 Tables | |
371
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1258 are compared by reference: |
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1259 two objects are considered equal only if they are the same object. |
396 | 1260 Every time you create a new table, |
1261 it is different from any previously existing table. | |
1262 Closures are also compared by reference. | |
1263 | |
1264 <p> | |
417 | 1265 You can change the way that Luan compares tables |
464
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1266 by using the "eq" metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
371
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1267 |
396 | 1268 <p> |
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1269 Java values are compared for equality with the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#equals(java.lang.Object)"><code>equals</code></a> method. |
371
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1270 |
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1271 <p> |
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1272 Equality comparisons do not convert strings to numbers |
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1273 or vice versa. |
562
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1274 Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>, |
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1275 and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different |
371
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1276 entries in a table. |
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1277 |
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1278 |
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1279 <p> |
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1280 The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>). |
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1281 |
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1282 |
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1283 <p> |
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1284 The order operators work as follows. |
396 | 1285 |
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1286 If both arguments are numbers, |
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1287 then they are compared following |
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1288 the usual rule for binary operations. |
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1289 Otherwise, if both arguments are strings, |
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1290 then their values are compared according to the current locale. |
396 | 1291 Otherwise, Luan tries to call the "lt" or the "le" |
464
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1292 metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
562
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1293 A comparison <code>a > b</code> is translated to <code>b < a</code> |
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1294 and <code>a >= b</code> is translated to <code>b <= a</code>. |
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1295 |
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1296 |
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1297 |
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1298 |
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1299 |
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1300 <h4 heading><a name="logical_ops" href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1301 |
1302 <p> | |
1303 The logical operators in Luan are | |
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1304 <b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>. |
396 | 1305 The <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false |
1306 and anything else as true. | |
464
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1307 Like the control structures (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>), |
396 | 1308 the <b>not</b> operator requires a boolean value. |
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1309 |
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1310 <p> |
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1311 The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1312 The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument |
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1313 if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>; |
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1314 otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument. |
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1315 The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument |
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1316 if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>; |
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1317 otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument. |
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1318 Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-circuit evaluation; |
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1319 that is, |
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1320 the second operand is evaluated only if necessary. |
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1321 Here are some examples: |
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1322 |
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1323 <pre> |
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1324 10 or 20 --> 10 |
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1325 10 or error() --> 10 |
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1326 nil or "a" --> "a" |
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1327 nil and 10 --> nil |
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1328 false and error() --> false |
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1329 false and nil --> false |
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1330 false or nil --> nil |
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1331 10 and 20 --> 20 |
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1332 </pre> |
396 | 1333 |
1334 <p> | |
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1335 (In this manual, |
562
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1336 <code>--></code> indicates the result of the preceding expression.) |
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1337 |
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1338 |
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1339 |
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1340 <h4 heading><a name="concatenation" href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></h4> |
396 | 1341 |
1342 <p> | |
1343 The string concatenation operator in Luan is | |
562
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1344 denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>'). |
396 | 1345 All operands are converted to strings. |
1346 | |
1347 | |
1348 | |
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1349 <h4 heading><a name="length" href="#length">The Length Operator</a></h4> |
562
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1350 |
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1351 <p> |
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1352 The length operator is denoted by the unary prefix operator <code>#</code>. |
396 | 1353 The length of a string is its number of characters. |
1354 The length of a binary is its number of bytes. | |
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1355 |
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1356 |
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1357 <p> |
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1358 A program can modify the behavior of the length operator for |
562
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1359 any table through the <code>__len</code> metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
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1360 |
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1361 |
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1362 <p> |
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1363 Unless a <code>__len</code> metamethod is given, |
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1364 the length of a table <code>t</code> is defined |
396 | 1365 as the number of elements in <em>sequence</em>, |
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1366 that is, |
396 | 1367 the size of the set of its positive numeric keys is equal to <em>{1..n}</em> |
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1368 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>. |
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1369 In that case, <em>n</em> is its length. |
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1370 Note that a table like |
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1371 |
562
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1372 <pre> |
371
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1373 {10, 20, nil, 40} |
562
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1374 </pre> |
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1375 |
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1376 <p> |
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1377 has a length of <code>2</code>, because that is the last key in sequence. |
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1378 |
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1379 |
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1380 |
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1381 |
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1382 |
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1383 <h4 heading><a name="precedence" href="#precedence">Precedence</a></h4> |
396 | 1384 |
1385 <p> | |
1386 Operator precedence in Luan follows the table below, | |
371
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1387 from lower to higher priority: |
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1388 |
562
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1389 <pre> |
371
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1390 or |
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1391 and |
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1392 < > <= >= ~= == |
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1393 .. |
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1394 + - |
396 | 1395 * / % |
1396 unary operators (not # -) | |
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1397 ^ |
562
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1398 </pre> |
396 | 1399 |
1400 <p> | |
371
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1401 As usual, |
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1402 you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression. |
562
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1403 The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>') |
371
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1404 operators are right associative. |
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1405 All other binary operators are left associative. |
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1406 |
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1407 |
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1408 |
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1409 |
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1410 |
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1411 <h4 heading><a name="constructors" href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></h4> |
396 | 1412 |
1413 <p> | |
371
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1414 Table constructors are expressions that create tables. |
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1415 Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created. |
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1416 A constructor can be used to create an empty table |
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1417 or to create a table and initialize some of its fields. |
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1418 The general syntax for constructors is |
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1419 |
562
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1420 <pre> |
604
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1421 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ fieldlist ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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1422 fieldlist ::= [field] {fieldsep [field]} |
371
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1423 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
604
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1424 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ | <b>end_of_line</b> |
562
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1425 </pre> |
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1426 |
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1427 <p> |
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1428 Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry |
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1429 with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>. |
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1430 A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to |
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1431 <code>["name"] = exp</code>. |
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1432 Finally, fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to |
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1433 <code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive integers |
371
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1434 starting with 1. |
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1435 Fields in the other formats do not affect this counting. |
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1436 For example, |
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1437 |
562
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1438 <pre> |
371
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1439 a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 } |
562
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1440 </pre> |
396 | 1441 |
1442 <p> | |
371
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1443 is equivalent to |
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1444 |
562
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1445 <pre> |
371
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1446 do |
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1447 local t = {} |
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1448 t[f(1)] = g |
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1449 t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp |
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1450 t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp |
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1451 t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1 |
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1452 t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp |
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1453 t[30] = 23 |
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1454 t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp |
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1455 a = t |
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1456 end |
562
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1457 </pre> |
371
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1458 |
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1459 <p> |
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1460 The order of the assignments in a constructor is undefined. |
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1461 (This order would be relevant only when there are repeated keys.) |
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1462 |
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1463 |
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1464 <p> |
562
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1465 If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code> |
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1466 and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression, |
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1467 then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively |
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1468 (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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1469 |
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1470 |
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1471 <p> |
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1472 The field list can have an optional trailing separator, |
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1473 as a convenience for machine-generated code. |
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1474 |
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1475 |
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1476 |
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1477 |
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1478 |
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1479 <h4 heading><a name="fn_calls" href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></h4> |
417 | 1480 |
1481 <p> | |
1482 A function call in Luan has the following syntax: | |
1483 | |
562
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1484 <pre> |
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1485 functioncall ::= prefixexp args |
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1486 </pre> |
417 | 1487 |
1488 <p> | |
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1489 In a function call, |
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1490 first prefixexp and args are evaluated. |
685 | 1491 The value of prefixexp must have type <em>function</em>. |
1492 This function is called | |
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1493 with the given arguments. |
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1494 |
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1495 |
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1496 <p> |
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1497 Arguments have the following syntax: |
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1498 |
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1499 <pre> |
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1500 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1501 args ::= tableconstructor |
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1502 args ::= LiteralString |
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1503 </pre> |
417 | 1504 |
1505 <p> | |
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1506 All argument expressions are evaluated before the call. |
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1507 A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is |
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1508 syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>; |
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1509 that is, the argument list is a single new table. |
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1510 A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code> |
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1511 (or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>) |
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1512 is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>; |
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1513 that is, the argument list is a single literal string. |
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1514 |
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1515 |
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1516 |
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1517 |
1327
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1518 <h4 heading><a name="fn_def" href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></h4> |
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1519 |
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1520 <p> |
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1521 The syntax for function definition is |
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1522 |
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1523 <pre> |
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1524 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
1092 | 1525 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block end_function |
1526 end_function ::= <b>end_function</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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1527 </pre> |
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1528 |
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1529 <p> |
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1530 The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions: |
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1531 |
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1532 <pre> |
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1533 stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
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1534 stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
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1535 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
562
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1536 </pre> |
417 | 1537 |
1538 <p> | |
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1539 The statement |
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1540 |
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1541 <pre> |
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1542 function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1543 </pre> |
417 | 1544 |
1545 <p> | |
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1546 translates to |
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1547 |
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1548 <pre> |
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1549 f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1550 </pre> |
417 | 1551 |
1552 <p> | |
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1553 The statement |
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1554 |
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1555 <pre> |
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1556 function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end |
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1557 </pre> |
417 | 1558 |
1559 <p> | |
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1560 translates to |
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1561 |
562
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1562 <pre> |
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1563 t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1564 </pre> |
417 | 1565 |
1566 <p> | |
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1567 The statement |
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1568 |
562
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1569 <pre> |
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1570 local function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1571 </pre> |
417 | 1572 |
1573 <p> | |
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1574 translates to |
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1575 |
562
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1576 <pre> |
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1577 local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1578 </pre> |
417 | 1579 |
1580 <p> | |
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1581 not to |
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1582 |
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1583 <pre> |
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1584 local f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1585 </pre> |
417 | 1586 |
1587 <p> | |
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1588 (This only makes a difference when the body of the function |
562
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1589 contains references to <code>f</code>.) |
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|
1590 |
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|
1591 |
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1592 <p> |
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1593 A function definition is an executable expression, |
562
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1594 whose value has type <em>function</em>. |
417 | 1595 When Luan precompiles a chunk, |
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1596 all its function bodies are precompiled too. |
417 | 1597 Then, whenever Luan executes the function definition, |
562
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1598 the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>). |
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1599 This function instance (or <em>closure</em>) |
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1600 is the final value of the expression. |
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1601 |
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1602 |
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1603 <p> |
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1604 Parameters act as local variables that are |
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1605 initialized with the argument values: |
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1606 |
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1607 <pre> |
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1608 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1609 </pre> |
417 | 1610 |
1611 <p> | |
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1612 When a function is called, |
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1613 the list of arguments is adjusted to |
1090
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799
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1614 the length of the list of parameters if the list is too short, |
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1615 unless the function is a <em>vararg function</em>, |
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1616 which is indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>') |
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1617 at the end of its parameter list. |
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1618 A vararg function does not adjust its argument list; |
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1619 instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them |
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1620 to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>, |
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1621 which is also written as three dots. |
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1622 The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments, |
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1623 similar to a function with multiple results. |
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1624 If a vararg expression is used inside another expression |
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1625 or in the middle of a list of expressions, |
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1626 then its return list is adjusted to one element. |
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1627 If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions, |
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1628 then no adjustment is made |
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1629 (unless that last expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1630 |
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|
1631 |
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|
1632 <p> |
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1633 As an example, consider the following definitions: |
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1634 |
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1635 <pre> |
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1636 function f(a, b) end |
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1637 function g(a, b, ...) end |
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1638 function r() return 1,2,3 end |
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1639 </pre> |
417 | 1640 |
1641 <p> | |
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1642 Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and |
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1643 to the vararg expression: |
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1644 |
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1645 <pre> |
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1646 CALL PARAMETERS |
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1647 |
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1648 f(3) a=3, b=nil |
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1649 f(3, 4) a=3, b=4 |
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1650 f(3, 4, 5) runtime error |
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1651 f(r(), 10) runtime error |
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1652 f(r()) runtime error |
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1653 |
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1654 g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing) |
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1655 g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing) |
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1656 g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8 |
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1657 g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3 |
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1658 </pre> |
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1659 |
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1660 <p> |
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1661 Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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1662 If control reaches the end of a function |
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1663 without encountering a <b>return</b> statement, |
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1664 then the function returns with no results. |
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1665 |
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1666 |
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1667 <h4 heading><a name="template_expr" href="#template_expr">Template Expressions</a></h4> |
465 | 1668 |
1669 <p>Luan template expression are based on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a>. Template expressions return multiple values. Here is an example:</p> | |
1670 | |
1325
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1671 <pre> |
465 | 1672 local name = "Bob" |
469 | 1673 write( %>Hello <%= name %>!<% ) |
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1674 </pre> |
465 | 1675 |
1676 <p>This is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1677 | |
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1678 <pre> |
465 | 1679 local name = "Bob" |
1680 write( "Hello ", name, "!" ) | |
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1681 </pre> |
465 | 1682 |
1683 <p>The strings in template expressions may be multiple lines.</p> | |
1684 | |
417 | 1685 |
1686 | |
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1687 <h3 heading><a name="visibility" href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></h3> |
417 | 1688 |
1689 <p> | |
1690 Luan is a lexically scoped language. | |
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1691 The scope of a local variable begins at the first statement after |
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1692 its declaration and lasts until the last non-void statement |
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1693 of the innermost block that includes the declaration. |
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1694 Consider the following example: |
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1695 |
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1696 <pre> |
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1697 x = 10 -- global variable |
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1698 do -- new block |
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1699 local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10 |
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1700 print(x) --> 10 |
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1701 x = x+1 |
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1702 do -- another block |
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1703 local x = x+1 -- another 'x' |
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1704 print(x) --> 12 |
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1705 end |
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1706 print(x) --> 11 |
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1707 end |
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1708 print(x) --> 10 (the global one) |
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1709 </pre> |
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1710 |
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1711 <p> |
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1712 Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>, |
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1713 the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet, |
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1714 and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable. |
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1715 |
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1716 |
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1717 <p> |
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1718 Because of the lexical scoping rules, |
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1719 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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1720 defined inside their scope. |
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1721 A local variable used by an inner function is called |
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1722 an <em>upvalue</em>, or <em>external local variable</em>, |
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1723 inside the inner function. |
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1724 |
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1725 |
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1726 <p> |
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1727 Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement |
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1728 defines new local variables. |
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1729 Consider the following example: |
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1730 |
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1731 <pre> |
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1732 a = {} |
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1733 local x = 20 |
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1734 for i=1,10 do |
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1735 local y = 0 |
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1736 a[i] = function () y=y+1; return x+y end |
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1737 end |
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1738 </pre> |
417 | 1739 |
1740 <p> | |
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1741 The loop creates ten closures |
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1742 (that is, ten instances of the anonymous function). |
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1743 Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable, |
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1744 while all of them share the same <code>x</code>. |
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1745 |
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1746 |
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1747 |
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1748 |
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1749 |
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1750 <h2 heading><a name="libs" href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a></h2> |
468 | 1751 |
1752 <p> | |
1753 The standard Luan libraries provide useful functions | |
1754 that are implemented both in Java and in Luan itself. | |
1755 How each function is implemented shouldn't matter to the user. | |
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1756 Some of these functions provide essential services to the language |
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1757 (e.g., <a href="#Luan.type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a>); |
468 | 1758 others provide access to "outside" services (e.g., I/O). |
1759 | |
1760 | |
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1761 <h3 heading><a name="default_lib" href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></h3> |
468 | 1762 |
1763 <p> | |
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1764 This is provided by default as a local variable for any Luan code as described in <a href="#env">Environments</a>. |
470 | 1765 |
1766 | |
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1767 <h4 heading><a name="require" href="#require"><code>require (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1768 |
1769 <p> | |
1770 Example use: | |
1771 | |
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1772 <pre> |
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1773 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
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1774 </pre> |
470 | 1775 |
1776 <p> | |
1777 Could be defined as: | |
1778 | |
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1779 <pre> |
470 | 1780 local function require(mod_name) |
476 | 1781 return <a href="#Package.load">Package.load</a>(mod_name) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("module '"..mod_name.."' not found") |
470 | 1782 end |
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1783 </pre> |
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1784 |
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1785 <p> |
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1786 A special case is: |
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1787 |
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1788 <pre> |
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1789 require "java" |
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1790 </pre> |
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1791 |
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1792 <p> |
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1793 This enables Java in the current chunk if that chunk has permission to use Java. If the chunk doesn't have permission to use Java, then an error is thrown. |
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1794 |
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1795 |
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1796 <h3 heading><a name="luan_lib" href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></h3> |
470 | 1797 |
1798 <p> | |
1799 Include this library by: | |
1800 | |
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1801 <pre> |
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1802 local Luan = require "luan:Luan.luan" |
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1803 </pre> |
470 | 1804 |
476 | 1805 <p> |
470 | 1806 The basic library provides basic functions to Luan that don't depend on other libaries. |
1807 | |
1808 | |
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1809 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.do_file" href="#Luan.do_file"><code>Luan.do_file ([uri])</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1810 |
1811 <p> | |
1812 Could be defined as: | |
1813 | |
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1814 <pre> |
470 | 1815 function Luan.do_file(uri) |
1316
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1816 local fn = <a href="#Luan.load_file">Luan.load_file</a>(uri) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("file '"..uri.."' not found") |
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1817 return fn() |
470 | 1818 end |
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1819 </pre> |
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1820 |
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1821 |
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1822 |
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1823 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.error" href="#Luan.error"><code>Luan.error (message)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1824 |
1825 <p> | |
482 | 1826 Throws an error containing the message. |
1827 | |
1828 <p> | |
1829 Could be defined as: | |
1830 | |
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1831 <pre> |
482 | 1832 function Luan.error(message) |
1833 <a href="#Luan.new_error">Luan.new_error</a>(message).throw() | |
1834 end | |
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1835 </pre> |
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1836 |
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1837 |
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1838 |
695 | 1839 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.eval" href="#Luan.eval"><code>Luan.eval (text [, source_name])</code></a></h4> |
1840 | |
1841 <p> | |
1842 Evaluates <code>text</code> as a Luan expression. | |
1843 | |
1844 <p> | |
1845 Could be defined as: | |
1846 | |
1847 <pre> | |
1848 function Luan.eval(text,source_name) | |
1849 return Luan.load( "return "..text, source_name or "eval" )() | |
1850 end | |
1851 </pre> | |
1852 | |
1853 | |
1854 | |
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1855 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.get_metatable" href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>Luan.get_metatable (table)</code></a></h4> |
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1856 |
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1857 <p> |
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1858 If <code>table</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>. |
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1859 Otherwise, |
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1860 if the table's metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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1861 returns the associated value. |
470 | 1862 Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given table. |
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1863 |
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1864 |
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1865 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.ipairs" href="#Luan.ipairs"><code>Luan.ipairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
474 | 1866 |
1867 <p> | |
1868 Returns an iterator function | |
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1869 so that the construction |
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1870 |
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1871 <pre> |
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1872 for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1873 </pre> |
474 | 1874 |
1875 <p> | |
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1876 will iterate over the key–value pairs |
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1877 (<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ..., |
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1878 up to the first nil value. |
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1879 |
474 | 1880 <p> |
1881 Could be defined as: | |
1882 | |
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1883 <pre> |
474 | 1884 function Luan.ipairs(t) |
1885 local i = 0 | |
1886 return function() | |
1887 if i < #t then | |
1888 i = i + 1 | |
1889 return i, t[i] | |
1890 end | |
1891 end | |
1892 end | |
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1893 </pre> |
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1894 |
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1895 |
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1896 |
695 | 1897 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load" href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load (text, source_name [, env])</code></a></h4> |
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1898 |
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1899 <p> |
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1900 Loads a chunk. |
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1901 |
474 | 1902 <p> |
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1903 The <code>text</code> is compiled. |
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1904 If there are no syntactic errors, |
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1905 returns the compiled chunk as a function; |
474 | 1906 otherwise, throws an error. |
1907 | |
1908 <p> | |
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1909 The <code>source_name</code> parameter is a string saying where the text came from. It is used to produce error messages. |
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1910 |
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1911 <p> |
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1912 If the <code>env</code> parameter is supplied, it becomes the <code>_ENV</code> of the chunk. |
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1913 |
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1914 |
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1915 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load_file" href="#Luan.load_file"><code>Luan.load_file ([file_uri])</code></a></h4> |
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1916 |
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1917 <p> |
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1918 Similar to <a href="#Luan.load"><code>load</code></a>, |
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1919 but gets the chunk from file <code>file_uri</code> |
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1920 or from the standard input, |
474 | 1921 if no file uri is given. |
1922 | |
1923 <p> | |
1924 Could be defined as: | |
1925 | |
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1926 <pre> |
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1927 function Luan.load_file(file_uri) |
474 | 1928 file_uri = file_uri or "stdin:" |
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1929 local f = Io.uri(file_uri) |
1316
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1930 if not f.exists() then |
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1931 return nil |
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1932 end |
474 | 1933 return <a href="#Luan.load">Luan.load</a>( f.read_text(), file_uri ) |
1934 end | |
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1935 </pre> |
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1936 |
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1937 |
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1938 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.new_error" href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error (message)</code></a></h4> |
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1939 |
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1940 <p> |
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1941 Creates a new error table containing the message assigned to "<code>message</code>". The error table also contains a <code>throw</code> function which throws the error. The table also contains a list of stack trace elements where each stack trace element is a table containing "<code>source</code>", "<code>line</code>", and possible "<code>call_to</code>". The table also has a metatable containing "<code>__to_string</code>" to render the error. |
482 | 1942 |
1943 <p> | |
1944 To print the current stack trace, you could do: | |
1945 | |
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1946 <pre> |
482 | 1947 Io.print( Luan.new_error "stack" ) |
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1948 </pre> |
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1949 |
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1950 |
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1951 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pairs" href="#Luan.pairs"><code>Luan.pairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
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1952 |
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1953 <p> |
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1954 If <code>t</code> has a metamethod <code>__pairs</code>, |
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1955 calls it with <code>t</code> as argument and returns the |
475 | 1956 result from the call. |
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1957 |
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1958 |
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1959 <p> |
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1960 Otherwise, |
475 | 1961 returns a function |
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1962 so that the construction |
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1963 |
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1964 <pre> |
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1965 for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1966 </pre> |
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1967 |
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1968 <p> |
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1969 will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>. |
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1970 |
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1971 |
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1972 |
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1973 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pcall" href="#Luan.pcall"><code>Luan.pcall (f [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h4> |
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1974 |
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1975 <p> |
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1976 Calls function <code>f</code> with |
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1977 the given arguments in <em>protected mode</em>. |
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1978 This means that any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated; |
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1979 instead, <code>pcall</code> catches the error |
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1980 and returns a status code. |
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1981 Its first result is the status code (a boolean), |
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1982 which is true if the call succeeds without errors. |
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1983 In such case, <code>pcall</code> also returns all results from the call, |
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1984 after this first result. |
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1985 In case of any error, <code>pcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error. |
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1986 |
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1987 |
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1988 |
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1989 |
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1990 <p> |
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1991 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3> |
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1992 Receives any number of arguments |
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1993 and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>, |
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1994 using the <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> function to convert each argument to a string. |
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1995 <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output, |
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1996 but only as a quick way to show a value, |
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1997 for instance for debugging. |
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1998 For complete control over the output, |
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1999 use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.write"><code>io.write</code></a>. |
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2000 |
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2001 |
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2002 |
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2003 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.range" href="#Luan.range"><code>Luan.range (start, stop [, step])</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2004 |
2005 <p> | |
2006 Based on <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html#range">the Python range() function</a>, this lets one iterate through a sequence of numbers. | |
2007 | |
2008 <p> | |
2009 Example use: | |
2010 | |
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2011 <pre> |
476 | 2012 for i in range(1,10) do |
2013 Io.print("count up:",i) | |
2014 end | |
2015 for i in range(10,0,-1) do | |
2016 Io.print("count down:",i) | |
2017 end | |
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2018 </pre> |
476 | 2019 |
2020 <p> | |
2021 Could be defined as: | |
2022 | |
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2023 <pre> |
476 | 2024 function Luan.range(start, stop, step) |
2025 step = step or 1 | |
478 | 2026 step == 0 and <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a> "bad argument #3 (step may not be zero)" |
476 | 2027 local i = start |
2028 return function() | |
2029 if step > 0 and i <= stop or step < 0 and i >= stop then | |
2030 local rtn = i | |
2031 i = i + step | |
2032 return rtn | |
2033 end | |
2034 end | |
2035 end | |
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2036 </pre> |
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2037 |
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2038 |
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2039 |
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2040 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_equal" href="#Luan.raw_equal"><code>Luan.raw_equal (v1, v2)</code></a></h4> |
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2041 |
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2042 <p> |
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2043 Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>, |
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2044 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2045 Returns a boolean. |
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2046 |
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2047 |
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2048 |
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2049 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_get" href="#Luan.raw_get"><code>Luan.raw_get (table, index)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2050 |
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2051 <p> |
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2052 Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>, |
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2053 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2054 <code>table</code> must be a table; |
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2055 <code>index</code> may be any value. |
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2056 |
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2057 |
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2058 |
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2059 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_len" href="#Luan.raw_len"><code>Luan.raw_len (v)</code></a></h4> |
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2060 |
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2061 <p> |
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2062 Returns the length of the object <code>v</code>, |
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2063 which must be a table or a string, |
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2064 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2065 Returns an integer. |
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2066 |
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2067 |
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2068 |
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2069 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_set" href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>Luan.raw_set (table, index, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2070 |
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2071 <p> |
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2072 Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>, |
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2073 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2074 <code>table</code> must be a table, |
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2075 <code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b>, |
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2076 and <code>value</code> any Lua value. |
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2077 |
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2078 |
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2079 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.set_metatable" href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>Luan.set_metatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h4> |
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2080 |
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2081 <p> |
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2082 Sets the metatable for the given table. |
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2083 If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>, |
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2084 removes the metatable of the given table. |
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2085 If the original metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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2086 raises an error. |
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2087 |
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2088 |
1189 | 2089 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.stringify" href="#Luan.stringify"><code>Luan.stringify (v [,strict])</code></a></h4> |
2090 | |
2091 <p> | |
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2092 Receives a value of any type and converts it to a string that is a Luan expression. <code>strict</code> is a string. If <code>strict</code> is 'strict' then invalid types throw an error. If <code>strict</code> is nil then invalid types are represented but the resulting expression is invalid. <code>strict</code> defaults to <b>nil</b>. |
1189 | 2093 |
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2094 |
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2095 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.to_string" href="#Luan.to_string"><code>Luan.to_string (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2096 |
2097 <p> | |
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2098 Receives a value of any type and |
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2099 converts it to a string in a human-readable format. |
475 | 2100 |
2101 <p> | |
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2102 If the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>"__to_string"</code> field, |
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2103 then <code>to_string</code> calls the corresponding value |
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2104 with <code>v</code> as argument, |
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2105 and uses the result of the call as its result. |
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2106 |
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2107 |
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2108 |
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2109 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.try" href="#Luan.try"><code>Luan.try (t, ···)</code></a></h4> |
589
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2110 |
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2111 <p> |
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2112 Implements try-catch as found in other languages where each block is in table <code>t</code>. <code>t[1]</code> is the "try" block. The <code>t.catch</code> and <code>t.finally</code> blocks are optional. Any extra arguments are passed to the "try" function. Returns the result of the "try" block or the "catch" block. |
476 | 2113 |
2114 <p> | |
2115 Example use: | |
2116 | |
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2117 <pre> |
476 | 2118 try { |
2119 function() | |
2120 a_dangerous_fn() | |
702 | 2121 end |
476 | 2122 catch = function(e) |
2123 -- handle error | |
702 | 2124 end |
476 | 2125 finally = function() |
2126 -- clean up | |
702 | 2127 end |
476 | 2128 } |
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2129 </pre> |
476 | 2130 |
482 | 2131 <p> |
2132 Could be defined as: | |
2133 | |
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2134 <pre> |
482 | 2135 function Luan.try(t) |
2136 local r = { <a href="#Luan.pcall">Luan.pcall</a>(t[1]) } | |
2137 if r[1] then | |
2138 Table.remove(r,1) | |
2139 elseif t.catch ~= nil then | |
2140 r = { t.catch(r[2]) } | |
2141 else | |
2142 t.finally and t.finally() | |
2143 r[2].throw() | |
2144 end | |
2145 t.finally and t.finally() | |
2146 return Table.unpack(r) | |
2147 end | |
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2148 </pre> |
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2149 |
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2150 |
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2151 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.type" href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2152 |
2153 <p> | |
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2154 Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string. |
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2155 The possible results of this function are |
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2156 "<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>), |
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2157 "<code>number</code>", |
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2158 "<code>string</code>", |
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2159 "<code>binary</code>", |
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2160 "<code>boolean</code>", |
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2161 "<code>table</code>", |
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2162 "<code>function</code>", |
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2163 and "<code>java</code>". |
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2164 |
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2165 |
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2166 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.values" href="#Luan.values"><code>Luan.values (···)</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2167 |
2168 <p> | |
2169 Returns a function so that the construction | |
2170 | |
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2171 <pre> |
1276 | 2172 for i, v in Luan.values(···) do <em>body</em> end |
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2173 </pre> |
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2174 |
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2175 <p> |
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2176 will iterate over all values of <code>···</code>. |
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2177 |
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2178 |
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2179 |
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2180 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.VERSION" href="#Luan.VERSION"><code>Luan.VERSION</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2181 |
2182 <p> | |
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2183 A global variable (not a function) that |
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2184 holds a string containing the current Luan version. |
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2185 |
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2186 |
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2187 |
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2188 |
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2189 |
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2190 |
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2191 <h3 heading><a name="package_lib" href="#package_lib">Modules</a></h3> |
476 | 2192 |
2193 <p> | |
2194 Include this library by: | |
2195 | |
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2196 <pre> |
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2197 local Package = require "luan:Package.luan" |
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2198 </pre> |
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2199 |
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2200 <p> |
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2201 The package library provides basic |
476 | 2202 facilities for loading modules in Luan. |
2203 | |
2204 | |
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2205 <h4 heading><a name="Package.load" href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
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2206 |
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2207 <p> |
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2208 Loads the given module. |
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2209 The function starts by looking into the <a href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a> table |
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2210 to determine whether <code>mod_uri</code> is already loaded. |
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2211 If it is, then <code>Package.load</code> returns the value stored |
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2212 at <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. |
476 | 2213 Otherwise, it tries to load a new value for the module. |
2214 | |
2215 <p> | |
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2216 To load a new value, <code>Package.load</code> first checks if <code>mod_uri</code> starts with "<b>java:</b>". If yes, then this is a Java class which is loaded by special Java code. |
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2217 |
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2218 <p> |
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2219 Otherwise <code>Package.load</code> tries to read the text of the file referred to by <code>mod_uri</code>. If the file doesn't exist, then <code>Package.load</code> returns <b>false</b>. If the file exists, then its content is compiled into a chunk by calling <a href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load</code></a>. This chunk is run passing in <code>mod_uri</code> as an argument. The value returned by the chunk must not be <b>nil</b> and is loaded. |
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2220 |
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2221 <p> |
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2222 If a new value for the module successful loaded, then it is stored in <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. The value is returned. |
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2223 |
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2224 |
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2225 |
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2226 |
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2227 <h4 heading><a name="Package.loaded" href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a></h4> |
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2228 |
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2229 |
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2230 <p> |
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2231 A table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> to control which |
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2232 modules are already loaded. |
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2233 When you load a module <code>mod_uri</code> and |
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2234 <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code> is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2235 <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> simply returns the value stored there. |
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2236 |
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2237 |
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2238 <p> |
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2239 This variable is only a reference to the real table; |
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2240 assignments to this variable do not change the |
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2241 table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a>. |
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2242 |
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2243 |
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2244 |
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2245 |
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2246 |
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2247 |
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2248 <h3 heading><a name="string_lib" href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></h3> |
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2249 |
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2250 <p> |
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2251 Include this library by: |
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2252 |
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2253 <pre> |
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2254 local String = require "luan:String.luan" |
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2255 </pre> |
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2256 |
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2257 <p> |
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2258 This library provides generic functions for string manipulation, |
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2259 such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching. |
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2260 When indexing a string in Luan, the first character is at position 1 |
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2261 (not at 0, as in Java). |
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2262 Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards, |
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2263 from the end of the string. |
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2264 Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on. |
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2265 |
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2266 |
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2267 |
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2268 <h4 heading><a name="String.char" href="#String.char"><code>String.char (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2269 |
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2270 <p> |
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2271 Receives zero or more integers. |
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2272 Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments, |
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2273 in which each character has the internal numerical code equal |
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2274 to its corresponding argument. |
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2275 |
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2276 |
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2277 <h4 heading><a name="String.concat" href="#String.concat"><code>String.concat (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2278 |
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2279 <p> |
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2280 Concatenates the <a href="#Luan.to_string"><code>to_string</code></a> value of all arguments. |
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2281 |
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2282 |
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2283 |
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2284 <h4 heading><a name="String.encode" href="#String.encode"><code>String.encode (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2285 |
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2286 <p> |
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2287 Encodes argument <code>s</code> into a string that can be placed in quotes so as to return the original value of the string. |
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2288 |
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2289 |
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2290 |
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2291 |
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2292 <h4 heading><a name="String.find" href="#String.find"><code>String.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h4> |
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2293 |
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2294 <p> |
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2295 Looks for the first match of |
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2296 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2297 If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code> |
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2298 where this occurrence starts and ends; |
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2299 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2300 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2301 where to start the search; |
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2302 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2303 A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code> |
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2304 turns off the pattern matching facilities, |
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2305 so the function does a plain "find substring" operation, |
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2306 with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered magic. |
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2307 Note that if <code>plain</code> is given, then <code>init</code> must be given as well. |
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2308 |
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2309 <p> |
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2310 If the pattern has captures, |
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2311 then in a successful match |
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2312 the captured values are also returned, |
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2313 after the two indices. |
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2314 |
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2315 |
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2316 |
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2317 |
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2318 <h4 heading><a name="String.format" href="#String.format"><code>String.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2319 |
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2320 |
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2321 <p> |
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2322 Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments |
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2323 following the description given in its first argument (which must be a string). |
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2324 The format string follows the same rules as the Java function <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#format(java.lang.String,%20java.lang.Object...)"><code>String.format</code></a> because Luan calls this internally. |
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2325 |
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2326 <p> |
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2327 Note that Java's <code>String.format</code> is too stupid to convert between ints and floats, so you must provide the right kind of number. |
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2328 |
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2329 |
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2330 |
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2331 <h4 heading><a name="String.gmatch" href="#String.gmatch"><code>String.gmatch (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2332 |
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2333 <p> |
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2334 Returns an iterator function that, |
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2335 each time it is called, |
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2336 returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) |
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2337 over the string <code>s</code>. |
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2338 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2339 then the whole match is produced in each call. |
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2340 |
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2341 |
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2342 <p> |
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2343 As an example, the following loop |
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2344 will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>, |
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2345 printing one per line: |
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2346 |
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2347 <pre> |
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2348 local s = "hello world from Lua" |
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2349 for w in String.gmatch(s, [[\w+]]) do |
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2350 print(w) |
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2351 end |
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2352 </pre> |
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2353 |
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2354 <p> |
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2355 The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the |
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2356 given string into a table: |
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2357 |
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2358 <pre> |
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2359 local t = {} |
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2360 local s = "from=world, to=Lua" |
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2361 for k, v in String.gmatch(s, [[(\w+)=(\w+)]]) do |
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2362 t[k] = v |
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2363 end |
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2364 </pre> |
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2365 |
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2366 <p> |
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2367 For this function, a caret '<code>^</code>' at the start of a pattern does not |
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2368 work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration. |
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2369 |
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2370 |
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2371 |
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2372 <h4 heading><a name="String.gsub" href="#String.gsub"><code>String.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h4> |
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2373 |
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2374 <p> |
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2375 Returns a copy of <code>s</code> |
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2376 in which all (or the first <code>n</code>, if given) |
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2377 occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) have been |
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2378 replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>, |
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2379 which can be a string, a table, or a function. |
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2380 <code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value, |
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2381 the total number of matches that occurred. |
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2382 The name <code>gsub</code> comes from <em>Global SUBstitution</em>. |
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2383 |
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2384 |
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2385 <p> |
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2386 If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement. |
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2387 The character <code>\</code> works as an escape character. |
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2388 Any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>$<em>d</em></code>, |
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2389 with <em>d</em> between 1 and 9, |
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2390 stands for the value of the <em>d</em>-th captured substring. |
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2391 The sequence <code>$0</code> stands for the whole match. |
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2392 |
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2393 |
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2394 <p> |
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2395 If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match, |
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2396 using the first capture as the key. |
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2397 |
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2398 |
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2399 <p> |
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2400 If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a |
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2401 match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments, |
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2402 in order. |
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2403 |
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2404 |
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2405 <p> |
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2406 In any case, |
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2407 if the pattern specifies no captures, |
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2408 then it behaves as if the whole pattern was inside a capture. |
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2409 |
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2410 |
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2411 <p> |
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2412 If the value returned by the table query or by the function call |
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2413 is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2414 then it is used as the replacement string; |
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2415 otherwise, if it is <b>nil</b>, |
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2416 then there is no replacement |
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2417 (that is, the original match is kept in the string). |
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2418 |
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2419 |
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2420 <p> |
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2421 Here are some examples: |
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2422 |
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2423 <pre> |
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2424 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[(\w+)]], "$1 $1") |
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2425 --> x="hello hello world world" |
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2426 |
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2427 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[\w+]], "$0 $0", 1) |
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2428 --> x="hello hello world" |
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2429 |
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2430 x = String.gsub("hello world from Luan", [[(\w+)\s*(\w+)]], "$2 $1") |
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2431 --> x="world hello Luan from" |
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2432 |
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2433 x = String.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", [[\$(.*?)\$]], function (s) |
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2434 return load(s)() |
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2435 end) |
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2436 --> x="4+5 = 9" |
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2437 |
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2438 local t = {name="lua", version="5.3"} |
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2439 x = String.gsub("$name-$version.tar.gz", [[\$(\w+)]], t) |
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2440 --> x="lua-5.3.tar.gz" |
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2441 </pre> |
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2442 |
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2443 |
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2444 |
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2445 <h4 heading><a name="String.literal" href="#String.literal"><code>String.literal (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2446 <p> |
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2447 Returns a string which matches the literal string <code>s</code> in a regular expression. This function is simply the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html#quote(java.lang.String)"><code>Pattern.quote</code></a>. |
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2448 |
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2449 |
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2450 <h4 heading><a name="String.lower" href="#String.lower"><code>String.lower (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2451 <p> |
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2452 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2453 uppercase letters changed to lowercase. |
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2454 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2455 |
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2456 |
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2457 |
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2458 |
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2459 <h4 heading><a name="String.match" href="#String.match"><code>String.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h4> |
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2460 |
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2461 <p> |
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2462 Looks for the first <em>match</em> of |
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2463 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2464 If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns |
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2465 the captures from the pattern; |
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2466 otherwise it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2467 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2468 then the whole match is returned. |
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2469 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2470 where to start the search; |
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2471 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2472 |
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2473 |
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2474 <h4 heading><a name="String.matches" href="#String.matches"><code>String.matches (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2475 <p> |
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2476 Returns a boolean indicating whether the <code>pattern</code> can be found in string <code>s</code>. |
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2477 This function is equivalent to |
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2478 |
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2479 <pre> |
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2480 return String.match(s,pattern) ~= nil |
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2481 </pre> |
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2482 |
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2483 |
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2484 <h4 heading><a name="String.rep" href="#String.rep"><code>String.rep (s, n [, sep])</code></a></h4> |
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2485 <p> |
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2486 Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of |
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2487 the string <code>s</code> separated by the string <code>sep</code>. |
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2488 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string |
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2489 (that is, no separator). |
562
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2490 Returns the empty string if <code>n</code> is not positive. |
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2491 |
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2492 |
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2493 |
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2494 |
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2495 <h4 heading><a name="String.reverse" href="#String.reverse"><code>String.reverse (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2496 <p> |
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2497 Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed. |
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2498 |
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2499 |
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2500 |
1195 | 2501 <h4 heading><a name="String.split" href="#String.match"><code>String.split (s, pattern [, limit])</code></a></h4> |
2502 | |
2503 <p> | |
2504 Splits <code>s</code> using regex <code>pattern</code> and returns the results. If <code>limit</code> is positive, then only returns at most that many results. If <code>limit</code> is zero, then remove trailing empty results. | |
2505 | |
2506 | |
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2507 |
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2508 <h4 heading><a name="String.sub" href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h4> |
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2509 |
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2510 <p> |
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2511 Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that |
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2512 starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>; |
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2513 <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> can be negative. |
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2514 If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1 |
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2515 (which is the same as the string length). |
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2516 In particular, |
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2517 the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code> |
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2518 with length <code>j</code>, |
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2519 and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> returns a suffix of <code>s</code> |
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2520 with length <code>i</code>. |
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2521 |
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2522 |
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2523 <p> |
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2524 If, after the translation of negative indices, |
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2525 <code>i</code> is less than 1, |
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2526 it is corrected to 1. |
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2527 If <code>j</code> is greater than the string length, |
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2528 it is corrected to that length. |
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2529 If, after these corrections, |
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2530 <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, |
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2531 the function returns the empty string. |
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2532 |
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2533 |
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2534 |
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2535 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_binary" href="#String.to_binary"><code>String.to_binary (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2536 |
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2537 <p> |
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2538 Converts a string to a binary by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#getBytes()"><code>String.getBytes</code></a>. |
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2539 |
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2540 |
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2541 |
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2542 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_number" href="#String.to_number"><code>String.to_number (s [, base])</code></a></h4> |
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2543 |
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2544 <p> |
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2545 When called with no <code>base</code>, |
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2546 <code>to_number</code> tries to convert its argument to a number. |
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2547 If the argument is |
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2548 a string convertible to a number, |
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2549 then <code>to_number</code> returns this number; |
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2550 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2551 |
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2552 The conversion of strings can result in integers or floats. |
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2553 |
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2554 |
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2555 <p> |
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2556 When called with <code>base</code>, |
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2557 then <code>s</code> must be a string to be interpreted as |
556
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2558 an integer numeral in that base. |
562
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2559 In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case) |
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2560 represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth, |
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2561 with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35. |
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2562 If the string <code>s</code> is not a valid numeral in the given base, |
556
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2563 the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2564 |
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2565 |
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2566 |
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2567 <h4 heading><a name="String.trim" href="#String.trim"><code>String.trim (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2568 |
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2569 <p> |
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2570 Removes the leading and trailing whitespace by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#trim()"><code>String.trim</code></a>. |
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2571 |
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2572 |
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2573 |
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2574 |
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2575 <h4 heading><a name="String.unicode" href="#String.unicode"><code>String.unicode (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2576 |
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2577 <p> |
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2578 Returns the internal numerical codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>, |
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2579 <code>s[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>s[j]</code>. |
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2580 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; |
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2581 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. |
556
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2582 These indices are corrected |
562
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2583 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. |
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2584 |
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2585 |
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2586 |
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2587 |
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2588 |
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2589 <h4 heading><a name="String.upper" href="#String.upper"><code>String.upper (s)</code></a></h4> |
556
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2590 <p> |
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2591 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2592 lowercase letters changed to uppercase. |
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2593 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2594 The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale. |
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2595 |
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|
2596 |
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|
2597 |
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|
2598 |
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|
2599 |
1327
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|
2600 <h3 heading><a name="binary_lib" href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></h3> |
567 | 2601 |
2602 <p> | |
2603 Include this library by: | |
2604 | |
2605 <pre> | |
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2606 local Binary = require "luan:Binary.luan" |
567 | 2607 </pre> |
2608 | |
2609 | |
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2610 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.binary" href="#Binary.binary"><code>Binary.binary (···)</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2611 |
2612 <p> | |
2613 Receives zero or more bytes (as integers). | |
2614 Returns a binary with length equal to the number of arguments, | |
2615 in which each byte has the internal numerical code equal | |
2616 to its corresponding argument. | |
2617 | |
2618 | |
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2619 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.byte" href="#Binary.byte"><code>Binary.byte (b [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2620 |
2621 <p> | |
2622 Returns the internal numerical codes of the bytes <code>b[i]</code>, | |
2623 <code>b[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>b[j]</code>. | |
2624 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; | |
2625 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. | |
2626 These indices are corrected | |
2627 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. | |
2628 | |
2629 | |
1257
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2630 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.to_string" href="#Binary.to_string"><code>Binary.to_string (b [,charset])</code></a></h4> |
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2631 <p> |
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2632 If <code>charset</code> is not nil then converts the binary <code>b</code> to a string using the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#String(byte[],%20java.lang.String)">String constructor</a>, else makes each byte a char. |
567 | 2633 |
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2634 |
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|
2635 |
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|
2636 |
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2637 <h3 heading><a name="table_lib" href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></h3> |
565
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2638 |
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2639 <p> |
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2640 Include this library by: |
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2641 |
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2642 <pre> |
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2643 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
565
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2644 </pre> |
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2645 |
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2646 <p> |
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2647 This library provides generic functions for table manipulation. |
565
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2648 It provides all its functions inside the table <code>Table</code>. |
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2649 |
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2650 |
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2651 |
642
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2652 <h4 heading><a name="Table.clear" href="#Table.clear"><code>Table.clear (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
580 | 2653 |
2654 <p> | |
2655 Clears the table. | |
2656 | |
2657 | |
642
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2658 <h4 heading><a name="Table.concat" href="#Table.concat"><code>Table.concat (list [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2659 |
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2660 <p> |
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2661 Given a list, |
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2662 returns the string <code>list[i]..sep..list[i+1] ··· sep..list[j]</code>. |
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2663 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string, |
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2664 the default for <code>i</code> is 1, |
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2665 and the default for <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>. |
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2666 If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string. |
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2667 |
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2668 |
642
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2669 <h4 heading><a name="Table.copy" href="#Table.copy"><code>Table.copy (tbl [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2670 |
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2671 <p> |
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2672 If <code>i</code> is <code>nil</code>, returns a shallow copy of <code>tbl</code>. |
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2673 Otherwise returns a new table which is a list of the elements <code>tbl[i] ··· tbl[j]</code>. |
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2674 By default, <code>j</code> is <code>#tbl</code>. |
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2675 |
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2676 |
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2677 |
642
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2678 <h4 heading><a name="Table.insert" href="#Table.insert"><code>Table.insert (list, pos, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2679 |
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2680 <p> |
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2681 Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>list</code>, |
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2682 shifting up the elements |
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2683 <code>list[pos], list[pos+1], ···, list[#list]</code>. |
565
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2684 |
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2685 |
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2686 |
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2687 <h4 heading><a name="Table.is_empty" href="#Table.is_empty"><code>Table.is_empty (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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2688 |
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|
2689 |
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2690 |
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2691 <h4 heading><a name="Table.pack" href="#Table.pack"><code>Table.pack (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2692 |
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2693 <p> |
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2694 Returns a new table with all parameters stored into keys 1, 2, etc. |
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2695 and with a field "<code>n</code>" with the total number of parameters. |
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2696 Note that the resulting table may not be a sequence. |
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2697 |
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2698 |
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2699 |
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2700 |
642
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2701 <h4 heading><a name="Table.remove" href="#Table.remove"><code>Table.remove (list, pos)</code></a></h4> |
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2702 |
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|
2703 |
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|
2704 <p> |
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|
2705 Removes from <code>list</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>, |
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|
2706 returning the value of the removed element. |
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|
2707 When <code>pos</code> is an integer between 1 and <code>#list</code>, |
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2708 it shifts down the elements |
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|
2709 <code>list[pos+1], list[pos+2], ···, list[#list]</code> |
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2710 and erases element <code>list[#list]</code>; |
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2711 The index <code>pos</code> can also be 0 when <code>#list</code> is 0, |
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2712 or <code>#list + 1</code>; |
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|
2713 in those cases, the function erases the element <code>list[pos]</code>. |
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2714 |
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2715 |
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2716 |
1100
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add Table.is_empty() and Table.size()
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2717 <h4 heading><a name="Table.size" href="#Table.size"><code>Table.size (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2718 |
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|
2719 |
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2720 |
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2721 <h4 heading><a name="Table.sort" href="#Table.sort"><code>Table.sort (list [, comp])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2722 |
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|
2723 <p> |
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|
2724 Sorts list elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>, |
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|
2725 from <code>list[1]</code> to <code>list[#list]</code>. |
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|
2726 If <code>comp</code> is given, |
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|
2727 then it must be a function that receives two list elements |
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2728 and returns true when the first element must come |
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|
2729 before the second in the final order |
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|
2730 (so that <code>not comp(list[i+1],list[i])</code> will be true after the sort). |
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|
2731 If <code>comp</code> is not given, |
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|
2732 then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead. |
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|
2733 |
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|
2734 <p> |
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|
2735 The sort algorithm is not stable; |
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|
2736 that is, elements considered equal by the given order |
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|
2737 may have their relative positions changed by the sort. |
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|
2738 |
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|
2739 |
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|
2740 |
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|
2741 <h4 heading><a name="Table.unpack" href="#Table.unpack"><code>Table.unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2742 |
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|
2743 <p> |
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|
2744 Returns the elements from the given list. |
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|
2745 This function is equivalent to |
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|
2746 |
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|
2747 <pre> |
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|
2748 return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j] |
565
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|
2749 </pre> |
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|
2750 |
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|
2751 <p> |
1277 | 2752 By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is <code>list.n or #list</code>. |
371
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|
2753 |
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|
2754 |
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|
2755 |
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|
2756 |
1327
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|
2757 <h3 heading><a name="number_lib" href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></h3> |
566
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|
2758 |
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|
2759 <p> |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2760 Include this library by: |
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|
2761 |
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|
2762 <pre> |
693
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module URIs must now include ".luan"
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|
2763 local Number = require "luan:Number.luan" |
566
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|
2764 </pre> |
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|
2765 |
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|
2766 |
642
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|
2767 <h4 heading><a name="Number.double" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.double (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2768 <p> |
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2769 Returns <code>x</code> as a double. |
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|
2770 |
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|
2771 |
1342
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|
2772 <h4 heading><a name="Number.float" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.float (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2773 <p> |
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|
2774 Returns <code>x</code> as a float. |
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|
2775 |
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|
2776 |
642
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|
2777 <h4 heading><a name="Number.integer" href="#Number.integer"><code>Number.integer (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2778 <p> |
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|
2779 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an integer, |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2780 returns that integer. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2781 Otherwise throws an error. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2782 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2783 |
642
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|
2784 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long" href="#Number.long"><code>Number.long (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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diff
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|
2785 <p> |
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diff
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|
2786 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an long, |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2787 returns that long. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2788 Otherwise throws an error. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
changeset
|
2789 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
changeset
|
2790 |
642
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diff
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|
2791 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long_to_string" href="#Number.long_to_string"><code>Number.long_to_string (i, radix)</code></a></h4> |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2792 <p> |
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diff
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|
2793 Converts long value <code>i</code> to a string by calling <code><a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Long.html#toString(long,%20int)">Long.toString</a></code>. |
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|
2794 |
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|
2795 |
642
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|
2796 <h4 heading><a name="Number.type" href="#Number.type"><code>Number.type (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2797 <p> |
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|
2798 Returns a string for the numeric type of <code>x</code>. Possible return values include "<code>integer</code>", "<code>long</code>", "<code>double</code>", and "<code>float</code>". |
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|
2799 |
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|
2800 |
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diff
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|
2801 |
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diff
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|
2802 |
1327
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|
2803 <h3 heading><a name="math_lib" href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></h3> |
566
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|
2804 |
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diff
changeset
|
2805 <p> |
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|
2806 Include this library by: |
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diff
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|
2807 |
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diff
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|
2808 <pre> |
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|
2809 local Math = require "luan:Math.luan" |
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|
2810 </pre> |
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|
2811 |
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|
2812 <p> |
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|
2813 This library provides basic mathematical functions. |
566
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|
2814 It provides all its functions and constants inside the table <code>Math</code>. |
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|
2815 |
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|
2816 |
642
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|
2817 <h4 heading><a name="Math.abs" href="#Math.abs"><code>Math.abs (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2818 |
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|
2819 <p> |
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|
2820 Returns the absolute value of <code>x</code>. |
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changeset
|
2821 |
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diff
changeset
|
2822 |
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diff
changeset
|
2823 |
642
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|
2824 <h4 heading><a name="Math.acos" href="#Math.acos"><code>Math.acos (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2825 |
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2826 <p> |
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2827 Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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2828 |
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2829 |
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2830 |
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2831 |
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2832 <h4 heading><a name="Math.asin" href="#Math.asin"><code>Math.asin (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2833 |
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2834 <p> |
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2835 Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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2836 |
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2837 |
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2838 |
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2839 |
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2840 <h4 heading><a name="Math.atan" href="#Math.atan"><code>Math.atan (y, x)</code></a></h4> |
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2841 |
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2842 <p> |
371
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2843 Returns the arc tangent of <code>y/x</code> (in radians), |
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2844 but uses the signs of both parameters to find the |
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2845 quadrant of the result. |
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2846 (It also handles correctly the case of <code>x</code> being zero.) |
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2847 |
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|
2848 |
566
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|
2849 |
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2850 |
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2851 <h4 heading><a name="Math.ceil" href="#Math.ceil"><code>Math.ceil (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2852 |
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2853 <p> |
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|
2854 Returns the smallest integral value larger than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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|
2855 |
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|
2856 |
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|
2857 |
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2858 |
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2859 <h4 heading><a name="Math.cos" href="#Math.cos"><code>Math.cos (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2860 |
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2861 <p> |
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2862 Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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2863 |
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|
2864 |
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|
2865 |
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|
2866 |
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2867 <h4 heading><a name="Math.deg" href="#Math.deg"><code>Math.deg (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2868 |
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2869 <p> |
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2870 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from radians to degrees. |
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|
2871 |
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|
2872 |
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|
2873 |
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|
2874 |
642
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2875 <h4 heading><a name="Math.exp" href="#Math.exp"><code>Math.exp (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2876 |
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|
2877 <p> |
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2878 Returns the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em> |
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|
2879 (where <code>e</code> is the base of natural logarithms). |
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|
2880 |
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|
2881 |
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diff
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|
2882 |
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|
2883 |
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2884 <h4 heading><a name="Math.floor" href="#Math.floor"><code>Math.floor (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2885 |
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|
2886 <p> |
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|
2887 Returns the largest integral value smaller than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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|
2888 |
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diff
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|
2889 |
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diff
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|
2890 |
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|
2891 |
642
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|
2892 <h4 heading><a name="Math.fmod" href="#Math.fmod"><code>Math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2893 |
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|
2894 <p> |
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|
2895 Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code> |
566
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2896 that rounds the quotient towards zero. |
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|
2897 |
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|
2898 |
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|
2899 |
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|
2900 |
642
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|
2901 <h4 heading><a name="Math.huge" href="#Math.huge"><code>Math.huge</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2902 |
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|
2903 <p> |
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2904 A value larger than any other numerical value. |
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|
2905 |
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|
2906 |
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|
2907 |
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|
2908 |
642
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2909 <h4 heading><a name="Math.log" href="#Math.log"><code>Math.log (x [, base])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2910 |
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|
2911 <p> |
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|
2912 Returns the logarithm of <code>x</code> in the given base. |
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|
2913 The default for <code>base</code> is <em>e</em> |
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|
2914 (so that the function returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>). |
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|
2915 |
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|
2916 |
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|
2917 |
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|
2918 |
642
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2919 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max" href="#Math.max"><code>Math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2920 |
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|
2921 <p> |
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2922 Returns the argument with the maximum value, |
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2923 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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|
2924 |
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|
2925 |
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|
2926 |
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2927 |
642
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|
2928 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max_integer" href="#Math.max_integer"><code>Math.max_integer</code></a></h4> |
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2929 <p> |
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2930 An integer with the maximum value for an integer. |
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|
2931 |
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|
2932 |
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|
2933 |
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2934 |
642
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2935 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min" href="#Math.min"><code>Math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2936 |
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2937 <p> |
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2938 Returns the argument with the minimum value, |
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2939 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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|
2940 |
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|
2941 |
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|
2942 |
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2943 |
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2944 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min_integer" href="#Math.min_integer"><code>Math.min_integer</code></a></h4> |
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2945 <p> |
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2946 An integer with the minimum value for an integer. |
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|
2947 |
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|
2948 |
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2949 |
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2950 |
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2951 <h4 heading><a name="Math.modf" href="#Math.modf"><code>Math.modf (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2952 |
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2953 <p> |
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2954 Returns the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>. |
566
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2955 |
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2956 |
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2957 |
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2958 |
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2959 <h4 heading><a name="Math.pi" href="#Math.pi"><code>Math.pi</code></a></h4> |
371
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2960 |
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2961 <p> |
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2962 The value of <em>π</em>. |
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2963 |
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2964 |
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2965 |
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2966 |
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2967 <h4 heading><a name="Math.rad" href="#Math.rad"><code>Math.rad (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2968 |
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2969 <p> |
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2970 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from degrees to radians. |
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2971 |
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2972 |
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2973 |
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2974 |
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2975 <h4 heading><a name="Math.random" href="#Math.random"><code>Math.random ([m [, n])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2976 |
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2977 |
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2978 <p> |
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2979 When called without arguments, |
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2980 returns a pseudo-random float with uniform distribution |
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2981 in the range <em>[0,1)</em>. |
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2982 When called with two integers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>, |
566
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2983 <code>Math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random integer |
371
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2984 with uniform distribution in the range <em>[m, n]</em>. |
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2985 (The value <em>m-n</em> cannot be negative and must fit in a Luan integer.) |
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2986 The call <code>Math.random(n)</code> is equivalent to <code>Math.random(1,n)</code>. |
371
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2987 |
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2988 |
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2989 <p> |
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2990 This function is an interface to the underling |
566
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2991 pseudo-random generator function provided by Java. |
371
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2992 No guarantees can be given for its statistical properties. |
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2993 |
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|
2994 |
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2995 |
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2996 |
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2997 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sin" href="#Math.sin"><code>Math.sin (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2998 |
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2999 <p> |
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3000 Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
3001 |
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3002 |
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3003 |
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|
3004 |
642
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3005 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sqrt" href="#Math.sqrt"><code>Math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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3006 |
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3007 <p> |
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3008 Returns the square root of <code>x</code>. |
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|
3009 (You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.) |
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|
3010 |
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|
3011 |
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|
3012 |
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|
3013 |
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3014 <h4 heading><a name="Math.tan" href="#Math.tan"><code>Math.tan (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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3015 |
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|
3016 <p> |
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|
3017 Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
3018 |
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|
3019 |
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|
3020 |
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|
3021 |
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|
3022 |
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|
3023 |
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|
3024 |
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|
3025 |
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|
3026 <h2>6.8 – <a name="6.8">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3027 |
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|
3028 <p> |
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|
3029 The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation. |
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|
3030 The first one uses implicit file handles; |
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|
3031 that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a |
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3032 default output file, |
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3033 and all input/output operations are over these default files. |
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|
3034 The second style uses explicit file handles. |
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|
3035 |
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|
3036 |
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|
3037 <p> |
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|
3038 When using implicit file handles, |
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|
3039 all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>. |
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|
3040 When using explicit file handles, |
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|
3041 the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file handle |
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|
3042 and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file handle. |
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|
3043 |
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|
3044 |
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|
3045 <p> |
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|
3046 The table <code>io</code> also provides |
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|
3047 three predefined file handles with their usual meanings from C: |
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|
3048 <a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>. |
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|
3049 The I/O library never closes these files. |
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|
3050 |
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|
3051 |
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|
3052 <p> |
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|
3053 Unless otherwise stated, |
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3054 all I/O functions return <b>nil</b> on failure |
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3055 (plus an error message as a second result and |
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|
3056 a system-dependent error code as a third result) |
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3057 and some value different from <b>nil</b> on success. |
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|
3058 On non-POSIX systems, |
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3059 the computation of the error message and error code |
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|
3060 in case of errors |
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|
3061 may be not thread safe, |
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|
3062 because they rely on the global C variable <code>errno</code>. |
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|
3063 |
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|
3064 |
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|
3065 <p> |
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|
3066 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3067 |
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|
3068 |
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|
3069 <p> |
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|
3070 Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>. |
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3071 Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file. |
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|
3072 |
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3073 |
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3074 |
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|
3075 |
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|
3076 <p> |
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|
3077 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3078 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3079 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3080 <p> |
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|
3081 Equivalent to <code>io.output():flush()</code>. |
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|
3082 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3083 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3084 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3085 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3086 <p> |
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|
3087 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3088 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3089 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3090 <p> |
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diff
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|
3091 When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode), |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
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parents:
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changeset
|
3092 and sets its handle as the default input file. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3093 When called with a file handle, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
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parents:
diff
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|
3094 it simply sets this file handle as the default input file. |
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|
3095 When called without parameters, |
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diff
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|
3096 it returns the current default input file. |
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|
3097 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3098 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3099 <p> |
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|
3100 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3101 instead of returning an error code. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3102 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3103 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3104 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3105 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3106 <p> |
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|
3107 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename ···])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3108 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3109 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3110 <p> |
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|
3111 Opens the given file name in read mode |
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3112 and returns an iterator function that |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3113 works like <code>file:lines(···)</code> over the opened file. |
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parents:
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|
3114 When the iterator function detects the end of file, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3115 it returns no values (to finish the loop) and automatically closes the file. |
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|
3116 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3117 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3118 <p> |
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diff
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|
3119 The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent |
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parents:
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|
3120 to <code>io.input():lines("*l")</code>; |
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parents:
diff
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|
3121 that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3122 In this case it does not close the file when the loop ends. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3123 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3124 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3125 <p> |
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|
3126 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3127 instead of returning an error code. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3128 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3129 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3130 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3131 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3132 <p> |
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|
3133 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3134 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3135 |
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diff
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|
3136 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3137 This function opens a file, |
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parents:
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|
3138 in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>. |
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|
3139 It returns a new file handle, |
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diff
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|
3140 or, in case of errors, <b>nil</b> plus an error message. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3141 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3142 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3143 <p> |
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|
3144 The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following: |
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parents:
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|
3145 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3146 <ul> |
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|
3147 <li><b>"<code>r</code>": </b> read mode (the default);</li> |
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|
3148 <li><b>"<code>w</code>": </b> write mode;</li> |
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|
3149 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> append mode;</li> |
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parents:
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|
3150 <li><b>"<code>r+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li> |
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|
3151 <li><b>"<code>w+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li> |
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parents:
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|
3152 <li><b>"<code>a+</code>": </b> append update mode, previous data is preserved, |
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|
3153 writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li> |
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|
3154 </ul><p> |
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parents:
diff
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|
3155 The <code>mode</code> string can also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3156 which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3157 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3158 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3159 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3160 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3161 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3162 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3163 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3164 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3165 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3166 Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3167 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3168 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3169 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3170 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3171 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
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|
3172 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3173 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3174 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3175 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3176 This function is system dependent and is not available |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3177 on all platforms. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3178 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3179 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3180 <p> |
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|
3181 Starts program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns |
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diff
changeset
|
3182 a file handle that you can use to read data from this program |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3183 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default) |
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diff
changeset
|
3184 or to write data to this program |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3185 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>). |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
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changeset
|
3186 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3187 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3188 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3189 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3190 <p> |
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changeset
|
3191 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3192 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3193 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3194 <p> |
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parents:
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changeset
|
3195 Equivalent to <code>io.input():read(···)</code>. |
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changeset
|
3196 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3197 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3198 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3199 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3200 <p> |
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changeset
|
3201 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3202 |
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|
3203 |
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|
3204 <p> |
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|
3205 Returns a handle for a temporary file. |
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|
3206 This file is opened in update mode |
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|
3207 and it is automatically removed when the program ends. |
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|
3208 |
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diff
changeset
|
3209 |
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diff
changeset
|
3210 |
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|
3211 |
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|
3212 <p> |
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|
3213 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3214 |
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|
3215 |
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|
3216 <p> |
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|
3217 Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle. |
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|
3218 Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle, |
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|
3219 <code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle, |
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|
3220 or <b>nil</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle. |
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|
3221 |
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|
3222 |
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diff
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|
3223 |
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|
3224 |
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|
3225 <p> |
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|
3226 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3227 |
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|
3228 |
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|
3229 <p> |
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|
3230 Equivalent to <code>io.output():write(···)</code>. |
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|
3231 |
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|
3232 |
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|
3233 |
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|
3234 |
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|
3235 <p> |
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|
3236 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3237 |
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|
3238 |
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|
3239 <p> |
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|
3240 Closes <code>file</code>. |
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|
3241 Note that files are automatically closed when |
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|
3242 their handles are garbage collected, |
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|
3243 but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen. |
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|
3244 |
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diff
changeset
|
3245 |
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|
3246 <p> |
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|
3247 When closing a file handle created with <a href="#pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen</code></a>, |
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|
3248 <a href="#pdf-file:close"><code>file:close</code></a> returns the same values |
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|
3249 returned by <a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a>. |
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|
3250 |
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diff
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|
3251 |
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diff
changeset
|
3252 |
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diff
changeset
|
3253 |
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|
3254 <p> |
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|
3255 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3256 |
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changeset
|
3257 |
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|
3258 <p> |
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|
3259 Saves any written data to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3260 |
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diff
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|
3261 |
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diff
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|
3262 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3263 |
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|
3264 <p> |
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|
3265 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3266 |
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diff
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|
3267 |
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|
3268 <p> |
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|
3269 Returns an iterator function that, |
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|
3270 each time it is called, |
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|
3271 reads the file according to the given formats. |
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|
3272 When no format is given, |
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|
3273 uses "<code>l</code>" as a default. |
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3274 As an example, the construction |
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|
3275 |
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|
3276 <pre> |
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|
3277 for c in file:lines(1) do <em>body</em> end |
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|
3278 </pre><p> |
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|
3279 will iterate over all characters of the file, |
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diff
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|
3280 starting at the current position. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3281 Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file |
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|
3282 when the loop ends. |
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|
3283 |
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diff
changeset
|
3284 |
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|
3285 <p> |
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|
3286 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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diff
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|
3287 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3288 |
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changeset
|
3289 |
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diff
changeset
|
3290 |
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diff
changeset
|
3291 |
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changeset
|
3292 <p> |
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|
3293 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3294 |
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diff
changeset
|
3295 |
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changeset
|
3296 <p> |
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|
3297 Reads the file <code>file</code>, |
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changeset
|
3298 according to the given formats, which specify what to read. |
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|
3299 For each format, |
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diff
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|
3300 the function returns a string or a number with the characters read, |
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|
3301 or <b>nil</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format. |
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|
3302 (In this latter case, |
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diff
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|
3303 the function does not read subsequent formats.) |
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|
3304 When called without formats, |
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diff
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|
3305 it uses a default format that reads the next line |
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|
3306 (see below). |
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|
3307 |
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changeset
|
3308 |
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changeset
|
3309 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3310 The available formats are |
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changeset
|
3311 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3312 <ul> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3313 |
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diff
changeset
|
3314 <li><b>"<code>n</code>": </b> |
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diff
changeset
|
3315 reads a numeral and returns it as a float or an integer, |
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diff
changeset
|
3316 following the lexical conventions of Lua. |
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diff
changeset
|
3317 (The numeral may have leading spaces and a sign.) |
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diff
changeset
|
3318 This format always reads the longest input sequence that |
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diff
changeset
|
3319 is a valid prefix for a number; |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3320 if that prefix does not form a valid number |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3321 (e.g., an empty string, "<code>0x</code>", or "<code>3.4e-</code>"), |
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diff
changeset
|
3322 it is discarded and the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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diff
changeset
|
3323 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3324 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3325 <li><b>"<code>i</code>": </b> |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3326 reads an integral number and returns it as an integer. |
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|
3327 </li> |
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|
3328 |
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|
3329 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> |
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|
3330 reads the whole file, starting at the current position. |
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|
3331 On end of file, it returns the empty string. |
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3332 </li> |
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3333 |
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|
3334 <li><b>"<code>l</code>": </b> |
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|
3335 reads the next line skipping the end of line, |
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3336 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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3337 This is the default format. |
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3338 </li> |
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|
3339 |
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|
3340 <li><b>"<code>L</code>": </b> |
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|
3341 reads the next line keeping the end-of-line character (if present), |
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3342 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3343 </li> |
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|
3344 |
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3345 <li><b><em>number</em>: </b> |
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|
3346 reads a string with up to this number of bytes, |
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3347 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3348 If <code>number</code> is zero, |
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3349 it reads nothing and returns an empty string, |
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3350 or <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3351 </li> |
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|
3352 |
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|
3353 </ul><p> |
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|
3354 The formats "<code>l</code>" and "<code>L</code>" should be used only for text files. |
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|
3355 |
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|
3356 |
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|
3357 |
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|
3358 |
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|
3359 <p> |
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|
3360 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence [, offset]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3361 |
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|
3362 |
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|
3363 <p> |
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|
3364 Sets and gets the file position, |
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|
3365 measured from the beginning of the file, |
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|
3366 to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base |
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|
3367 specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows: |
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|
3368 |
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|
3369 <ul> |
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|
3370 <li><b>"<code>set</code>": </b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li> |
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|
3371 <li><b>"<code>cur</code>": </b> base is current position;</li> |
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|
3372 <li><b>"<code>end</code>": </b> base is end of file;</li> |
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3373 </ul><p> |
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|
3374 In case of success, <code>seek</code> returns the final file position, |
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|
3375 measured in bytes from the beginning of the file. |
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|
3376 If <code>seek</code> fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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3377 plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3378 |
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|
3379 |
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|
3380 <p> |
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|
3381 The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>, |
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3382 and for <code>offset</code> is 0. |
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|
3383 Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current |
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3384 file position, without changing it; |
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3385 the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3386 beginning of the file (and returns 0); |
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|
3387 and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3388 end of the file, and returns its size. |
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|
3389 |
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diff
changeset
|
3390 |
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diff
changeset
|
3391 |
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diff
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|
3392 |
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|
3393 <p> |
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|
3394 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3395 |
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|
3396 |
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|
3397 <p> |
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|
3398 Sets the buffering mode for an output file. |
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|
3399 There are three available modes: |
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|
3400 |
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|
3401 <ul> |
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|
3402 |
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|
3403 <li><b>"<code>no</code>": </b> |
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|
3404 no buffering; the result of any output operation appears immediately. |
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|
3405 </li> |
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diff
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|
3406 |
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|
3407 <li><b>"<code>full</code>": </b> |
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|
3408 full buffering; output operation is performed only |
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|
3409 when the buffer is full or when |
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|
3410 you explicitly <code>flush</code> the file (see <a href="#pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush</code></a>). |
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|
3411 </li> |
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|
3412 |
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|
3413 <li><b>"<code>line</code>": </b> |
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|
3414 line buffering; output is buffered until a newline is output |
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|
3415 or there is any input from some special files |
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|
3416 (such as a terminal device). |
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|
3417 </li> |
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|
3418 |
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|
3419 </ul><p> |
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|
3420 For the last two cases, <code>size</code> |
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|
3421 specifies the size of the buffer, in bytes. |
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|
3422 The default is an appropriate size. |
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|
3423 |
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|
3424 |
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|
3425 |
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|
3426 |
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|
3427 <p> |
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|
3428 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3429 |
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|
3430 |
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|
3431 <p> |
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|
3432 Writes the value of each of its arguments to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3433 The arguments must be strings or numbers. |
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|
3434 |
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|
3435 |
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|
3436 <p> |
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|
3437 In case of success, this function returns <code>file</code>. |
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|
3438 Otherwise it returns <b>nil</b> plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3439 |
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|
3440 |
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|
3441 |
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|
3442 |
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|
3443 |
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|
3444 |
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|
3445 |
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|
3446 <h2>6.9 – <a name="6.9">Operating System Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3447 |
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|
3448 <p> |
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|
3449 This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>. |
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|
3450 |
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|
3451 |
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|
3452 <p> |
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|
3453 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3> |
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3454 |
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|
3455 |
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|
3456 <p> |
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|
3457 Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time |
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3458 used by the program. |
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|
3459 |
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|
3460 |
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|
3461 |
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|
3462 |
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3463 <p> |
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3464 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3> |
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3465 |
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|
3466 |
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3467 <p> |
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3468 Returns a string or a table containing date and time, |
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3469 formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>. |
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3470 |
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|
3471 |
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3472 <p> |
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3473 If the <code>time</code> argument is present, |
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3474 this is the time to be formatted |
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3475 (see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value). |
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3476 Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time. |
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3477 |
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3478 |
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3479 <p> |
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3480 If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>', |
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3481 then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time. |
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3482 After this optional character, |
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3483 if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>", |
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3484 then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields: |
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3485 <code>year</code> (four digits), <code>month</code> (1–12), <code>day</code> (1–31), |
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3486 <code>hour</code> (0–23), <code>min</code> (0–59), <code>sec</code> (0–61), |
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3487 <code>wday</code> (weekday, Sunday is 1), |
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3488 <code>yday</code> (day of the year), |
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3489 and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean). |
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3490 This last field may be absent |
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3491 if the information is not available. |
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|
3492 |
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|
3493 |
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3494 <p> |
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|
3495 If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>", |
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3496 then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string, |
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3497 formatted according to the same rules as the ISO C function <code>strftime</code>. |
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|
3498 |
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|
3499 |
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3500 <p> |
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|
3501 When called without arguments, |
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|
3502 <code>date</code> returns a reasonable date and time representation that depends on |
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3503 the host system and on the current locale |
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|
3504 (that is, <code>os.date()</code> is equivalent to <code>os.date("%c")</code>). |
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|
3505 |
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|
3506 |
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|
3507 <p> |
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|
3508 On non-POSIX systems, |
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3509 this function may be not thread safe |
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|
3510 because of its reliance on C function <code>gmtime</code> and C function <code>localtime</code>. |
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|
3511 |
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|
3512 |
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|
3513 |
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|
3514 |
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|
3515 <p> |
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|
3516 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3517 |
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|
3518 |
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|
3519 <p> |
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|
3520 Returns the difference, in seconds, |
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|
3521 from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code> |
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|
3522 (where the times are values returned by <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a>). |
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|
3523 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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3524 this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>. |
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|
3525 |
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|
3526 |
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|
3527 |
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|
3528 |
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|
3529 <p> |
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|
3530 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3531 |
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|
3532 |
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|
3533 <p> |
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|
3534 This function is equivalent to the ISO C function <code>system</code>. |
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|
3535 It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell. |
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|
3536 Its first result is <b>true</b> |
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3537 if the command terminated successfully, |
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|
3538 or <b>nil</b> otherwise. |
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|
3539 After this first result |
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|
3540 the function returns a string plus a number, |
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|
3541 as follows: |
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diff
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|
3542 |
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|
3543 <ul> |
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|
3544 |
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|
3545 <li><b>"<code>exit</code>": </b> |
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|
3546 the command terminated normally; |
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|
3547 the following number is the exit status of the command. |
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|
3548 </li> |
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|
3549 |
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|
3550 <li><b>"<code>signal</code>": </b> |
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|
3551 the command was terminated by a signal; |
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|
3552 the following number is the signal that terminated the command. |
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|
3553 </li> |
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|
3554 |
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|
3555 </ul> |
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|
3556 |
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|
3557 <p> |
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|
3558 When called without a <code>command</code>, |
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|
3559 <code>os.execute</code> returns a boolean that is true if a shell is available. |
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|
3560 |
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|
3561 |
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|
3562 |
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|
3563 |
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|
3564 <p> |
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|
3565 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code [, close]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3566 |
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|
3567 |
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|
3568 <p> |
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|
3569 Calls the ISO C function <code>exit</code> to terminate the host program. |
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|
3570 If <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>, |
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|
3571 the returned status is <code>EXIT_SUCCESS</code>; |
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|
3572 if <code>code</code> is <b>false</b>, |
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|
3573 the returned status is <code>EXIT_FAILURE</code>; |
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|
3574 if <code>code</code> is a number, |
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|
3575 the returned status is this number. |
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|
3576 The default value for <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>. |
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|
3577 |
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diff
changeset
|
3578 |
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diff
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|
3579 <p> |
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|
3580 If the optional second argument <code>close</code> is true, |
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|
3581 closes the Lua state before exiting. |
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|
3582 |
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|
3583 |
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diff
changeset
|
3584 |
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diff
changeset
|
3585 |
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diff
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|
3586 <p> |
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|
3587 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3588 |
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diff
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|
3589 |
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diff
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|
3590 <p> |
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|
3591 Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>, |
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3592 or <b>nil</b> if the variable is not defined. |
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|
3593 |
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changeset
|
3594 |
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diff
changeset
|
3595 |
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changeset
|
3596 |
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|
3597 <p> |
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|
3598 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3599 |
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|
3600 |
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|
3601 <p> |
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3602 Deletes the file (or empty directory, on POSIX systems) |
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3603 with the given name. |
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|
3604 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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3605 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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|
3606 |
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|
3607 |
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diff
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|
3608 |
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diff
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|
3609 |
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|
3610 <p> |
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|
3611 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3612 |
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|
3613 |
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|
3614 <p> |
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|
3615 Renames file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>. |
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|
3616 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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|
3617 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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|
3618 |
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|
3619 |
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|
3620 |
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|
3621 |
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|
3622 <p> |
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|
3623 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3624 |
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|
3625 |
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|
3626 <p> |
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|
3627 Sets the current locale of the program. |
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|
3628 <code>locale</code> is a system-dependent string specifying a locale; |
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3629 <code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change: |
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3630 <code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>, |
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|
3631 <code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>; |
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|
3632 the default category is <code>"all"</code>. |
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3633 The function returns the name of the new locale, |
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|
3634 or <b>nil</b> if the request cannot be honored. |
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|
3635 |
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|
3636 |
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|
3637 <p> |
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|
3638 If <code>locale</code> is the empty string, |
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|
3639 the current locale is set to an implementation-defined native locale. |
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|
3640 If <code>locale</code> is the string "<code>C</code>", |
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|
3641 the current locale is set to the standard C locale. |
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|
3642 |
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|
3643 |
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|
3644 <p> |
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|
3645 When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument, |
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|
3646 this function only returns the name of the current locale |
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|
3647 for the given category. |
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|
3648 |
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|
3649 |
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diff
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|
3650 <p> |
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|
3651 This function may be not thread safe |
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|
3652 because of its reliance on C function <code>setlocale</code>. |
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|
3653 |
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diff
changeset
|
3654 |
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diff
changeset
|
3655 |
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|
3656 |
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|
3657 <p> |
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|
3658 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3659 |
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diff
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|
3660 |
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changeset
|
3661 <p> |
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|
3662 Returns the current time when called without arguments, |
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|
3663 or a time representing the date and time specified by the given table. |
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|
3664 This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>, |
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|
3665 and may have fields |
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|
3666 <code>hour</code> (default is 12), |
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|
3667 <code>min</code> (default is 0), |
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|
3668 <code>sec</code> (default is 0), |
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|
3669 and <code>isdst</code> (default is <b>nil</b>). |
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|
3670 For a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function. |
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|
3671 |
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diff
changeset
|
3672 |
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changeset
|
3673 <p> |
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changeset
|
3674 The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system. |
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changeset
|
3675 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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|
3676 this number counts the number |
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diff
changeset
|
3677 of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch"). |
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|
3678 In other systems, the meaning is not specified, |
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|
3679 and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to |
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|
3680 <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime</code></a>. |
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changeset
|
3681 |
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diff
changeset
|
3682 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3683 |
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diff
changeset
|
3684 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3685 <p> |
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|
3686 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3687 |
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diff
changeset
|
3688 |
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changeset
|
3689 <p> |
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changeset
|
3690 Returns a string with a file name that can |
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changeset
|
3691 be used for a temporary file. |
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changeset
|
3692 The file must be explicitly opened before its use |
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|
3693 and explicitly removed when no longer needed. |
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changeset
|
3694 |
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diff
changeset
|
3695 |
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diff
changeset
|
3696 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3697 On POSIX systems, |
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|
3698 this function also creates a file with that name, |
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diff
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|
3699 to avoid security risks. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3700 (Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions |
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diff
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|
3701 in the time between getting the name and creating the file.) |
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|
3702 You still have to open the file to use it |
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|
3703 and to remove it (even if you do not use it). |
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|
3704 |
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|
3705 |
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|
3706 <p> |
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diff
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|
3707 When possible, |
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diff
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|
3708 you may prefer to use <a href="#pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile</code></a>, |
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|
3709 which automatically removes the file when the program ends. |
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diff
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|
3710 |
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diff
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|
3711 |
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diff
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|
3712 |
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diff
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|
3713 |
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diff
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|
3714 |
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diff
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|
3715 |
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|
3716 |
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|
3717 <h2>6.10 – <a name="6.10">The Debug Library</a></h2> |
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|
3718 |
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|
3719 <p> |
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diff
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|
3720 This library provides |
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|
3721 the functionality of the debug interface (<a href="#4.9">§4.9</a>) to Lua programs. |
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|
3722 You should exert care when using this library. |
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3723 Several of its functions |
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|
3724 violate basic assumptions about Lua code |
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|
3725 (e.g., that variables local to a function |
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|
3726 cannot be accessed from outside; |
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diff
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|
3727 that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code; |
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|
3728 that Lua programs do not crash) |
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|
3729 and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code. |
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|
3730 Moreover, some functions in this library may be slow. |
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|
3731 |
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|
3732 |
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diff
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|
3733 <p> |
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|
3734 All functions in this library are provided |
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|
3735 inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table. |
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|
3736 All functions that operate over a thread |
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|
3737 have an optional first argument which is the |
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|
3738 thread to operate over. |
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|
3739 The default is always the current thread. |
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|
3740 |
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diff
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|
3741 |
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|
3742 <p> |
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|
3743 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3744 |
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diff
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|
3745 |
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diff
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|
3746 <p> |
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|
3747 Enters an interactive mode with the user, |
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|
3748 running each string that the user enters. |
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|
3749 Using simple commands and other debug facilities, |
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parents:
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|
3750 the user can inspect global and local variables, |
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diff
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|
3751 change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on. |
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diff
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|
3752 A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function, |
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|
3753 so that the caller continues its execution. |
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|
3754 |
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diff
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|
3755 |
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diff
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|
3756 <p> |
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diff
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|
3757 Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested |
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|
3758 within any function and so have no direct access to local variables. |
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|
3759 |
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diff
changeset
|
3760 |
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diff
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|
3761 |
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diff
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|
3762 |
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diff
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|
3763 <p> |
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|
3764 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3765 |
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diff
changeset
|
3766 |
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diff
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|
3767 <p> |
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diff
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|
3768 Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values: |
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|
3769 the current hook function, the current hook mask, |
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diff
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|
3770 and the current hook count |
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parents:
diff
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|
3771 (as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function). |
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|
3772 |
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diff
changeset
|
3773 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3774 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3775 |
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diff
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|
3776 <p> |
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|
3777 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] f [, what])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3778 |
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diff
changeset
|
3779 |
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diff
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|
3780 <p> |
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|
3781 Returns a table with information about a function. |
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|
3782 You can give the function directly |
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parents:
diff
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|
3783 or you can give a number as the value of <code>f</code>, |
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diff
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|
3784 which means the function running at level <code>f</code> of the call stack |
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|
3785 of the given thread: |
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parents:
diff
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|
3786 level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself); |
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parents:
diff
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|
3787 level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code> |
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parents:
diff
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|
3788 (except for tail calls, which do not count on the stack); |
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|
3789 and so on. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3790 If <code>f</code> is a number larger than the number of active functions, |
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parents:
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|
3791 then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>nil</b>. |
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parents:
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|
3792 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3793 |
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diff
changeset
|
3794 <p> |
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|
3795 The returned table can contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>, |
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changeset
|
3796 with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3797 The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available, |
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|
3798 except the table of valid lines. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3799 If present, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3800 the option '<code>f</code>' |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3801 adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself. |
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diff
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|
3802 If present, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3803 the option '<code>L</code>' |
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|
3804 adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of |
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|
3805 valid lines. |
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diff
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|
3806 |
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diff
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|
3807 |
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diff
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|
3808 <p> |
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|
3809 For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns |
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parents:
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changeset
|
3810 a table with a name for the current function, |
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diff
changeset
|
3811 if a reasonable name can be found, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3812 and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code> |
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changeset
|
3813 returns a table with all available information |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3814 about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function. |
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parents:
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|
3815 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3816 |
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diff
changeset
|
3817 |
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diff
changeset
|
3818 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3819 <p> |
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changeset
|
3820 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] f, local)</code></a></h3> |
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diff
changeset
|
3821 |
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|
3822 |
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|
3823 <p> |
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|
3824 This function returns the name and the value of the local variable |
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|
3825 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>f</code> of the stack. |
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3826 This function accesses not only explicit local variables, |
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3827 but also parameters, temporaries, etc. |
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|
3828 |
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|
3829 |
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|
3830 <p> |
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3831 The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on, |
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3832 following the order that they are declared in the code, |
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3833 counting only the variables that are active |
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|
3834 in the current scope of the function. |
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3835 Negative indices refer to vararg parameters; |
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|
3836 -1 is the first vararg parameter. |
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|
3837 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no variable with the given index, |
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3838 and raises an error when called with a level out of range. |
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|
3839 (You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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|
3840 |
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|
3841 |
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|
3842 <p> |
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3843 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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|
3844 represent variables with no known names |
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|
3845 (internal variables such as loop control variables, |
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|
3846 and variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3847 |
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|
3848 |
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|
3849 <p> |
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|
3850 The parameter <code>f</code> may also be a function. |
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|
3851 In that case, <code>getlocal</code> returns only the name of function parameters. |
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|
3852 |
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diff
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|
3853 |
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diff
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|
3854 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3855 |
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|
3856 <p> |
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|
3857 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3858 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3859 |
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|
3860 <p> |
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|
3861 Returns the metatable of the given <code>value</code> |
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|
3862 or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable. |
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|
3863 |
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diff
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|
3864 |
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diff
changeset
|
3865 |
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diff
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|
3866 |
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|
3867 <p> |
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|
3868 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3869 |
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diff
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|
3870 |
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|
3871 <p> |
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|
3872 Returns the registry table (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>). |
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|
3873 |
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diff
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|
3874 |
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diff
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|
3875 |
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|
3876 |
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|
3877 <p> |
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|
3878 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (f, up)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3879 |
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diff
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|
3880 |
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|
3881 <p> |
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|
3882 This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue |
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|
3883 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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|
3884 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue with the given index. |
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|
3885 |
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diff
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|
3886 |
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|
3887 <p> |
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|
3888 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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|
3889 represent variables with no known names |
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|
3890 (variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3891 |
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diff
changeset
|
3892 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3893 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3894 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3895 <p> |
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|
3896 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getuservalue"><code>debug.getuservalue (u)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3897 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3898 |
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diff
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|
3899 <p> |
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|
3900 Returns the Lua value associated to <code>u</code>. |
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|
3901 If <code>u</code> is not a userdata, |
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|
3902 returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3903 |
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changeset
|
3904 |
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changeset
|
3905 |
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diff
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|
3906 |
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|
3907 <p> |
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|
3908 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3909 |
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changeset
|
3910 |
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|
3911 <p> |
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|
3912 Sets the given function as a hook. |
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|
3913 The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe |
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|
3914 when the hook will be called. |
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|
3915 The string mask may have any combination of the following characters, |
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|
3916 with the given meaning: |
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|
3917 |
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|
3918 <ul> |
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|
3919 <li><b>'<code>c</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li> |
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|
3920 <li><b>'<code>r</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li> |
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3921 <li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li> |
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|
3922 </ul><p> |
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|
3923 Moreover, |
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|
3924 with a <code>count</code> different from zero, |
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|
3925 the hook is called also after every <code>count</code> instructions. |
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|
3926 |
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|
3927 |
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|
3928 <p> |
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|
3929 When called without arguments, |
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|
3930 <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook. |
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|
3931 |
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|
3932 |
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|
3933 <p> |
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|
3934 When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string |
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|
3935 describing the event that has triggered its call: |
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|
3936 <code>"call"</code> (or <code>"tail call"</code>), |
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3937 <code>"return"</code>, |
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|
3938 <code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>. |
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|
3939 For line events, |
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|
3940 the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter. |
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|
3941 Inside a hook, |
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|
3942 you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about |
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|
3943 the running function |
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diff
changeset
|
3944 (level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function, |
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|
3945 and level 1 is the hook function). |
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|
3946 |
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|
3947 |
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diff
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|
3948 |
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|
3949 |
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3950 <p> |
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3951 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3> |
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3952 |
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|
3953 |
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3954 <p> |
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3955 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable |
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3956 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack. |
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3957 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no local |
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3958 variable with the given index, |
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3959 and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range. |
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3960 (You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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3961 Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable. |
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|
3962 |
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|
3963 |
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3964 <p> |
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3965 See <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for more information about |
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3966 variable indices and names. |
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|
3967 |
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|
3968 |
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diff
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|
3969 |
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diff
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|
3970 |
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3971 <p> |
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3972 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (value, table)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3973 |
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|
3974 |
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|
3975 <p> |
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|
3976 Sets the metatable for the given <code>value</code> to the given <code>table</code> |
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|
3977 (which can be <b>nil</b>). |
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|
3978 Returns <code>value</code>. |
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|
3979 |
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|
3980 |
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diff
changeset
|
3981 |
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diff
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|
3982 |
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|
3983 <p> |
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|
3984 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (f, up, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3985 |
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diff
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|
3986 |
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|
3987 <p> |
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|
3988 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue |
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|
3989 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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|
3990 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue |
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|
3991 with the given index. |
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diff
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|
3992 Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue. |
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|
3993 |
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diff
changeset
|
3994 |
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diff
changeset
|
3995 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3996 |
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|
3997 <p> |
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|
3998 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setuservalue"><code>debug.setuservalue (udata, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3999 |
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|
4000 |
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|
4001 <p> |
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|
4002 Sets the given <code>value</code> as |
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|
4003 the Lua value associated to the given <code>udata</code>. |
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|
4004 <code>udata</code> must be a full userdata. |
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|
4005 |
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|
4006 |
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|
4007 <p> |
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|
4008 Returns <code>udata</code>. |
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|
4009 |
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|
4010 |
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changeset
|
4011 |
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|
4012 |
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|
4013 <p> |
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|
4014 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
4015 |
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|
4016 |
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|
4017 <p> |
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|
4018 If <code>message</code> is present but is neither a string nor <b>nil</b>, |
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|
4019 this function returns <code>message</code> without further processing. |
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|
4020 Otherwise, |
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diff
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|
4021 it returns a string with a traceback of the call stack. |
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|
4022 The optional <code>message</code> string is appended |
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|
4023 at the beginning of the traceback. |
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|
4024 An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level |
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|
4025 to start the traceback |
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diff
changeset
|
4026 (default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>). |
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|
4027 |
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diff
changeset
|
4028 |
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diff
changeset
|
4029 |
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diff
changeset
|
4030 |
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|
4031 <p> |
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|
4032 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvalueid"><code>debug.upvalueid (f, n)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
4033 |
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diff
changeset
|
4034 |
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|
4035 <p> |
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|
4036 Returns a unique identifier (as a light userdata) |
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|
4037 for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code> |
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|
4038 from the given function. |
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changeset
|
4039 |
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changeset
|
4040 |
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|
4041 <p> |
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|
4042 These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different |
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|
4043 closures share upvalues. |
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diff
changeset
|
4044 Lua closures that share an upvalue |
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|
4045 (that is, that access a same external local variable) |
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|
4046 will return identical ids for those upvalue indices. |
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|
4047 |
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changeset
|
4048 |
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changeset
|
4049 |
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changeset
|
4050 |
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changeset
|
4051 <p> |
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|
4052 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvaluejoin"><code>debug.upvaluejoin (f1, n1, f2, n2)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
4053 |
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diff
changeset
|
4054 |
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changeset
|
4055 <p> |
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|
4056 Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f1</code> |
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|
4057 refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f2</code>. |
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|
4058 |
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changeset
|
4059 |
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diff
changeset
|
4060 |
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diff
changeset
|
4061 |
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changeset
|
4062 |
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changeset
|
4063 |
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changeset
|
4064 |
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|
4065 <h1>7 – <a name="7">Lua Standalone</a></h1> |
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|
4066 |
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diff
changeset
|
4067 <p> |
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changeset
|
4068 Although Lua has been designed as an extension language, |
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changeset
|
4069 to be embedded in a host C program, |
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changeset
|
4070 it is also frequently used as a standalone language. |
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4071 An interpreter for Lua as a standalone language, |
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4072 called simply <code>lua</code>, |
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4073 is provided with the standard distribution. |
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4074 The standalone interpreter includes |
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4075 all standard libraries, including the debug library. |
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4076 Its usage is: |
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4077 |
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4078 <pre> |
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4079 lua [options] [script [args]] |
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4080 </pre><p> |
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4081 The options are: |
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4082 |
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4083 <ul> |
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4084 <li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>: </b> executes string <em>stat</em>;</li> |
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4085 <li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>: </b> "requires" <em>mod</em>;</li> |
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4086 <li><b><code>-i</code>: </b> enters interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li> |
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4087 <li><b><code>-v</code>: </b> prints version information;</li> |
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4088 <li><b><code>-E</code>: </b> ignores environment variables;</li> |
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4089 <li><b><code>--</code>: </b> stops handling options;</li> |
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4090 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b> executes <code>stdin</code> as a file and stops handling options.</li> |
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4091 </ul><p> |
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4092 After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>. |
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4093 When called without arguments, |
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4094 <code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code> |
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4095 when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal, |
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4096 and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise. |
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4097 |
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4098 |
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4099 <p> |
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4100 When called without option <code>-E</code>, |
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4101 the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT_5_3"><code>LUA_INIT_5_3</code></a> |
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4102 (or <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a> if the versioned name is not defined) |
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4103 before running any argument. |
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4104 If the variable content has the format <code>@<em>filename</em></code>, |
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4105 then <code>lua</code> executes the file. |
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4106 Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself. |
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4107 |
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4108 |
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4109 <p> |
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4110 When called with option <code>-E</code>, |
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4111 besides ignoring <code>LUA_INIT</code>, |
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4112 Lua also ignores |
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4113 the values of <code>LUA_PATH</code> and <code>LUA_CPATH</code>, |
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4114 setting the values of |
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4115 <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> |
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4116 with the default paths defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>. |
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4117 |
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4118 |
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4119 <p> |
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4120 All options are handled in order, except <code>-i</code> and <code>-E</code>. |
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4121 For instance, an invocation like |
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4122 |
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4123 <pre> |
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4124 $ lua -e'a=1' -e 'print(a)' script.lua |
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4125 </pre><p> |
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4126 will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then print the value of <code>a</code>, |
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4127 and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments. |
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4128 (Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.) |
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4129 |
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4130 |
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4131 <p> |
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4132 Before running any code, |
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4133 <code>lua</code> collects all command-line arguments |
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4134 in a global table called <code>arg</code>. |
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4135 The script name goes to index 0, |
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4136 the first argument after the script name goes to index 1, |
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4137 and so on. |
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4138 Any arguments before the script name |
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4139 (that is, the interpreter name plus its options) |
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4140 go to negative indices. |
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4141 For instance, in the call |
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4142 |
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4143 <pre> |
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4144 $ lua -la b.lua t1 t2 |
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4145 </pre><p> |
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4146 the table is like this: |
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4147 |
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4148 <pre> |
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4149 arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la", |
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4150 [0] = "b.lua", |
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4151 [1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" } |
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4152 </pre><p> |
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4153 If there is no script in the call, |
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4154 the interpreter name goes to index 0, |
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4155 followed by the other arguments. |
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4156 For instance, the call |
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|
4157 |
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4158 <pre> |
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4159 $ lua -e "print(arg[1])" |
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4160 </pre><p> |
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4161 will print "<code>-e</code>". |
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4162 If there is a script, |
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4163 the script is called with parameters |
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4164 <code>arg[1]</code>, ···, <code>arg[#arg]</code>. |
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4165 (Like all chunks in Lua, |
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4166 the script is compiled as a vararg function.) |
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4167 |
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4168 |
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4169 <p> |
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4170 In interactive mode, |
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4171 Lua repeatedly prompts and waits for a line. |
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4172 After reading a line, |
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4173 Lua first try to interpret the line as an expression. |
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4174 If it succeeds, it prints its value. |
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4175 Otherwise, it interprets the line as a statement. |
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4176 If you write an incomplete statement, |
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4177 the interpreter waits for its completion |
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4178 by issuing a different prompt. |
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4179 |
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4180 |
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4181 <p> |
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4182 In case of unprotected errors in the script, |
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4183 the interpreter reports the error to the standard error stream. |
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4184 If the error object is not a string but |
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4185 has a metamethod <code>__to_string</code>, |
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4186 the interpreter calls this metamethod to produce the final message. |
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4187 Otherwise, the interpreter converts the error object to a string |
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4188 and adds a stack traceback to it. |
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4189 |
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4190 |
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4191 <p> |
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|
4192 When finishing normally, |
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4193 the interpreter closes its main Lua state |
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|
4194 (see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>). |
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|
4195 The script can avoid this step by |
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|
4196 calling <a href="#pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit</code></a> to terminate. |
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|
4197 |
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|
4198 |
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|
4199 <p> |
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|
4200 To allow the use of Lua as a |
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|
4201 script interpreter in Unix systems, |
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4202 the standalone interpreter skips |
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4203 the first line of a chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>. |
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|
4204 Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs |
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|
4205 by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form, |
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4206 as in |
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|
4207 |
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|
4208 <pre> |
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|
4209 #!/usr/local/bin/lua |
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|
4210 </pre><p> |
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4211 (Of course, |
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4212 the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine. |
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|
4213 If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>, |
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4214 then |
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|
4215 |
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|
4216 <pre> |
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|
4217 #!/usr/bin/env lua |
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|
4218 </pre><p> |
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|
4219 is a more portable solution.) |
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|
4220 |
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|
4221 |
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|
4222 |
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|
4223 <h1>8 – <a name="8">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1> |
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4224 |
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|
4225 <p> |
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4226 Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program |
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4227 from Lua 5.2 to Lua 5.3. |
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4228 You can avoid some incompatibilities by compiling Lua with |
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4229 appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>). |
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|
4230 However, |
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4231 all these compatibility options will be removed in the future. |
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|
4232 |
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|
4233 |
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|
4234 <p> |
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|
4235 Lua versions can always change the C API in ways that |
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|
4236 do not imply source-code changes in a program, |
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|
4237 such as the numeric values for constants |
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|
4238 or the implementation of functions as macros. |
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|
4239 Therefore, |
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|
4240 you should not assume that binaries are compatible between |
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|
4241 different Lua versions. |
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|
4242 Always recompile clients of the Lua API when |
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4243 using a new version. |
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|
4244 |
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|
4245 |
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|
4246 <p> |
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|
4247 Similarly, Lua versions can always change the internal representation |
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|
4248 of precompiled chunks; |
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|
4249 precompiled chunks are not compatible between different Lua versions. |
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|
4250 |
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|
4251 |
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|
4252 <p> |
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|
4253 The standard paths in the official distribution may |
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4254 change between versions. |
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|
4255 |
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|
4256 |
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|
4257 |
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|
4258 <h2>8.1 – <a name="8.1">Changes in the Language</a></h2> |
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|
4259 <ul> |
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|
4260 |
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|
4261 <li> |
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|
4262 The main difference between Lua 5.2 and Lua 5.3 is the |
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|
4263 introduction of an integer subtype for numbers. |
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|
4264 Although this change should not affect "normal" computations, |
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|
4265 some computations |
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|
4266 (mainly those that involve some kind of overflow) |
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4267 can give different results. |
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|
4268 |
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|
4269 |
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|
4270 <p> |
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|
4271 You can fix these differences by forcing a number to be a float |
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|
4272 (in Lua 5.2 all numbers were float), |
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|
4273 in particular writing constants with an ending <code>.0</code> |
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|
4274 or using <code>x = x + 0.0</code> to convert a variable. |
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|
4275 (This recommendation is only for a quick fix |
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|
4276 for an occasional incompatibility; |
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|
4277 it is not a general guideline for good programming. |
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|
4278 For good programming, |
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|
4279 use floats where you need floats |
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|
4280 and integers where you need integers.) |
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|
4281 </li> |
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|
4282 |
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|
4283 <li> |
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|
4284 The conversion of a float to a string now adds a <code>.0</code> suffix |
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|
4285 to the result if it looks like an integer. |
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|
4286 (For instance, the float 2.0 will be printed as <code>2.0</code>, |
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|
4287 not as <code>2</code>.) |
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4288 You should always use an explicit format |
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|
4289 when you need a specific format for numbers. |
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|
4290 |
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|
4291 |
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|
4292 <p> |
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|
4293 (Formally this is not an incompatibility, |
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|
4294 because Lua does not specify how numbers are formatted as strings, |
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4295 but some programs assumed a specific format.) |
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|
4296 </li> |
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|
4297 |
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|
4298 <li> |
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|
4299 The generational mode for the garbage collector was removed. |
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4300 (It was an experimental feature in Lua 5.2.) |
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4301 </li> |
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|
4302 |
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|
4303 </ul> |
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|
4304 |
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4305 |
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4306 |
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4307 |
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|
4308 <h2>8.2 – <a name="8.2">Changes in the Libraries</a></h2> |
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4309 <ul> |
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|
4310 |
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4311 <li> |
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|
4312 The <code>bit32</code> library has been deprecated. |
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|
4313 It is easy to require a compatible external library or, |
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4314 better yet, to replace its functions with appropriate bitwise operations. |
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|
4315 (Keep in mind that <code>bit32</code> operates on 32-bit integers, |
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4316 while the bitwise operators in standard Lua operate on 64-bit integers.) |
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4317 </li> |
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|
4318 |
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4319 <li> |
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|
4320 The Table library now respects metamethods |
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4321 for setting and getting elements. |
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4322 </li> |
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|
4323 |
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4324 <li> |
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4325 The <a href="#pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs</code></a> iterator now respects metamethods and |
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4326 its <code>__ipairs</code> metamethod has been deprecated. |
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4327 </li> |
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|
4328 |
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4329 <li> |
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4330 Option names in <a href="#pdf-io.read"><code>io.read</code></a> do not have a starting '<code>*</code>' anymore. |
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4331 For compatibility, Lua will continue to ignore this character. |
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4332 </li> |
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|
4333 |
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4334 <li> |
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4335 The following functions were deprecated in the mathematical library: |
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4336 <code>atan2</code>, <code>cosh</code>, <code>sinh</code>, <code>tanh</code>, <code>pow</code>, |
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4337 <code>frexp</code>, and <code>ldexp</code>. |
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4338 You can replace <code>math.pow(x,y)</code> with <code>x^y</code>; |
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4339 you can replace <code>math.atan2</code> with <code>math.atan</code>, |
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4340 which now accepts one or two parameters; |
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4341 you can replace <code>math.ldexp(x,exp)</code> with <code>x * 2.0^exp</code>. |
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4342 For the other operations, |
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4343 you can either use an external library or |
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4344 implement them in Lua. |
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4345 </li> |
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|
4346 |
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|
4347 <li> |
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4348 The searcher for C loaders used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> |
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4349 changed the way it handles versioned names. |
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4350 Now, the version should come after the module name |
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4351 (as is usual in most other tools). |
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4352 For compatibility, that searcher still tries the old format |
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4353 if it cannot find an open function according to the new style. |
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4354 (Lua 5.2 already worked that way, |
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4355 but it did not document the change.) |
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|
4356 </li> |
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|
4357 |
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|
4358 </ul> |
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|
4359 |
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|
4360 |
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|
4361 |
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|
4362 |
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|
4363 <h2>8.3 – <a name="8.3">Changes in the API</a></h2> |
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|
4364 |
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|
4365 |
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|
4366 <ul> |
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|
4367 |
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|
4368 <li> |
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|
4369 Continuation functions now receive as parameters what they needed |
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4370 to get through <code>lua_getctx</code>, |
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|
4371 so <code>lua_getctx</code> has been removed. |
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|
4372 Adapt your code accordingly. |
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|
4373 </li> |
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|
4374 |
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|
4375 <li> |
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|
4376 Function <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> has an extra parameter, <code>strip</code>. |
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4377 Use 0 as the value of this parameter to get the old behavior. |
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|
4378 </li> |
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|
4379 |
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|
4380 <li> |
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|
4381 Functions to inject/project unsigned integers |
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|
4382 (<code>lua_pushunsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsignedx</code>, |
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|
4383 <code>luaL_checkunsigned</code>, <code>luaL_optunsigned</code>) |
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|
4384 were deprecated. |
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|
4385 Use their signed equivalents with a type cast. |
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|
4386 </li> |
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|
4387 |
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|
4388 <li> |
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|
4389 Macros to project non-default integer types |
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|
4390 (<code>luaL_checkint</code>, <code>luaL_optint</code>, <code>luaL_checklong</code>, <code>luaL_optlong</code>) |
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|
4391 were deprecated. |
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|
4392 Use their equivalent over <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> with a type cast |
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|
4393 (or, when possible, use <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> in your code). |
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|
4394 </li> |
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|
4395 |
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|
4396 </ul> |
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|
4397 |
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|
4398 |
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|
4399 |
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|
4400 |
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|
4401 <h1>9 – <a name="9">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1> |
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|
4402 |
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|
4403 <p> |
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|
4404 Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF. |
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|
4405 As usual in extended BNF, |
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|
4406 {A} means 0 or more As, |
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|
4407 and [A] means an optional A. |
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|
4408 (For operator precedences, see <a href="#3.4.8">§3.4.8</a>; |
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4409 for a description of the terminals |
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|
4410 Name, Numeral, |
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|
4411 and LiteralString, see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>.) |
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|
4412 |
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|
4413 |
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|
4414 |
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|
4415 |
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|
4416 <pre> |
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|
4417 |
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|
4418 chunk ::= block |
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|
4419 |
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|
4420 block ::= {stat} [retstat] |
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|
4421 |
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|
4422 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ | |
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4423 varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist | |
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4424 functioncall | |
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|
4425 label | |
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|
4426 <b>break</b> | |
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|
4427 <b>goto</b> Name | |
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4428 <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4429 <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4430 <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp | |
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|
4431 <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> | |
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|
4432 <b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4433 <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4434 <b>function</b> funcname funcbody | |
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4435 <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody | |
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4436 <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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4437 |
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4438 retstat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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4439 |
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4440 label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’ |
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4441 |
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4442 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
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4443 |
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4444 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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4445 |
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4446 var ::= Name | prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ | prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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4447 |
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4448 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
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4449 |
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4450 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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4451 |
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4452 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Numeral | LiteralString | ‘<b>...</b>’ | functiondef | |
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4453 prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp |
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4454 |
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4455 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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4456 |
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4457 functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args |
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4458 |
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4459 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ | tableconstructor | LiteralString |
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4460 |
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4461 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
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4462 |
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4463 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b> |
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4464 |
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4465 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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4466 |
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4467 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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4468 |
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4469 fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep] |
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4470 |
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4471 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
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4472 |
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4473 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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4474 |
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4475 binop ::= ‘<b>+</b>’ | ‘<b>-</b>’ | ‘<b>*</b>’ | ‘<b>/</b>’ | ‘<b>//</b>’ | ‘<b>^</b>’ | ‘<b>%</b>’ | |
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4476 ‘<b>&</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ | ‘<b>|</b>’ | ‘<b>>></b>’ | ‘<b><<</b>’ | ‘<b>..</b>’ | |
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4477 ‘<b><</b>’ | ‘<b><=</b>’ | ‘<b>></b>’ | ‘<b>>=</b>’ | ‘<b>==</b>’ | ‘<b>~=</b>’ | |
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4478 <b>and</b> | <b>or</b> |
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4479 |
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4480 unop ::= ‘<b>-</b>’ | <b>not</b> | ‘<b>#</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ |
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4481 |
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4482 </pre> |
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4483 |
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4484 <p> |
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4485 |
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4486 |
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4487 |
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4488 |
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4489 |
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4490 |
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4491 |
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4492 |
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4493 <HR> |
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4494 <SMALL CLASS="footer"> |
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4495 Last update: |
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4496 Fri Jan 16 00:58:20 BRST 2015 |
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4497 </SMALL> |
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4498 <!-- |
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4499 Last change: minor edit |
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4500 --> |
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4501 |
391
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4502 </body> |
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4503 </html> |