Mercurial Hosting > luan
annotate website/src/manual.html @ 1344:dc2af9d5463b
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2 <html> |
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3 <head> |
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4 <title>Luan Reference Manual</title> |
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5 <style> |
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6 @import "site.css"; |
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7 </style> |
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8 </head> |
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9 <body> |
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11 <div small> |
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12 <a href=".">Luan</a> |
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13 / <a href="docs.html">Documentation</a> |
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14 </div> |
372 | 15 |
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16 <h1><a href="manual.html">Luan Reference Manual</a></h1> |
372 | 17 |
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18 <p small> |
372 | 19 Original copyright © 2015 Lua.org, PUC-Rio. |
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20 Freely available under the terms of the |
372 | 21 <a href="http://www.lua.org/license.html">Lua license</a>. |
22 Modified for Luan. | |
23 </p> | |
24 | |
25 <hr/> | |
26 | |
27 <h2>Contents</h2> | |
28 | |
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29 <div contents><a href="#intro">Introduction</a></div> |
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30 |
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31 <div contents> |
373 | 32 <a href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a> |
33 <ul> | |
34 <li><a href="#types">Values and Types</a></li> | |
35 <li><a href="#env">Environments</a></li> | |
36 <li><a href="#error">Error Handling</a></li> | |
37 <li><a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></li> | |
380 | 38 <li><a href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></li> |
39 </ul> | |
40 </div> | |
41 | |
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42 <div contents> |
380 | 43 <a href="#lang">The Language</a> |
44 <ul> | |
45 <li><a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></li> | |
46 <li><a href="#vars">Variables</a></li> | |
389 | 47 <li> |
48 <a href="#stmts">Statements</a> | |
49 <ul> | |
50 <li><a href="#blocks">Blocks</a></li> | |
395 | 51 <li><a href="#chunks">Chunks</a></li> |
52 <li><a href="#assignment">Assignment</a></li> | |
53 <li><a href="#control">Control Structures</a></li> | |
54 <li><a href="#for">For Statement</a></li> | |
55 <li><a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></li> | |
56 <li><a href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></li> | |
465 | 57 <li><a href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></li> |
395 | 58 </ul> |
59 </li> | |
60 <li> | |
61 <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a> | |
62 <ul> | |
63 <li><a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></li> | |
396 | 64 <li><a href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></li> |
65 <li><a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></li> | |
66 <li><a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></li> | |
67 <li><a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></li> | |
68 <li><a href="#length">The Length Operator</a></li> | |
69 <li><a href="#precedence">Precedence</a></li> | |
70 <li><a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></li> | |
417 | 71 <li><a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></li> |
72 <li><a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></li> | |
465 | 73 <li><a href="#template_expr">Template Expressions</a></li> |
389 | 74 </ul> |
75 </li> | |
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76 <li><a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></li> |
373 | 77 </ul> |
78 </div> | |
79 | |
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80 <div contents> |
468 | 81 <a href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a> |
82 <ul> | |
83 <li><a href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></li> | |
470 | 84 <li><a href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></li> |
476 | 85 <li><a href="#package_lib">Modules</a></li> |
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86 <li><a href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></li> |
567 | 87 <li><a href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></li> |
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88 <li><a href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></li> |
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89 <li><a href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></li> |
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90 <li><a href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></li> |
468 | 91 </ul> |
92 </div> | |
93 | |
372 | 94 <hr/> |
95 | |
373 | 96 |
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97 <h2 heading><a name="intro" href="#intro">Introduction</a></h2> |
372 | 98 |
99 <p>Luan is a high level programming language based on <a href="http://www.lua.org">Lua</a>. A great strength of Lua is its simplicity and Luan takes this even further, being even simpler than Lua. The goal is to provide a simple programming language for the casual programmer with as few concepts as possible so that one can quickly learn the language and then easily understand any code written in Luan.</p> | |
100 | |
101 <p>Luan is implemented in Java and is tightly coupled with Java. So it makes a great scripting language for Java programmers.</p> | |
102 | |
103 <p>Unlike Lua which is meant to be embedded, Luan is meant to be a full scripting language. This done not by adding feature to Luan, but rather by providing a complete set of libraries.</p> | |
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104 |
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105 |
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106 <h2 heading><a name="basic" href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a></h2> |
373 | 107 |
108 <p>This section describes the basic concepts of the language.</p> | |
109 | |
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110 <h3 heading><a name="types" href="#types">Values and Types</a></h3> |
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111 |
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112 <p> |
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113 Luan is a <em>dynamically typed language</em>. |
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114 This means that |
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115 variables do not have types; only values do. |
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116 There are no type definitions in the language. |
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117 All values carry their own type. |
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118 |
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119 |
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120 <p> |
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121 All values in Luan are <em>first-class values</em>. |
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122 This means that all values can be stored in variables, |
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123 passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results. |
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124 |
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125 |
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126 <p> |
373 | 127 There are eight basic types in Luan: |
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128 <em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>, |
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129 <em>string</em>, <em>binary</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>java</em>, |
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130 and <em>table</em>. |
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131 <em>Nil</em> is the type of the value <b>nil</b>, |
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132 whose main property is to be different from any other value; |
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133 it usually represents the absence of a useful value. |
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134 <em>Nil</em> is implemented as the Java value <em>null</em>. |
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135 <em>Boolean</em> is the type of the values <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>. |
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136 <em>Boolean</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Boolean</em>. |
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137 <em>Number</em> represents both |
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138 integer numbers and real (floating-point) numbers. |
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139 <em>Number</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Number</em>. Any Java subclass of <em>Number</em> is allowed and this is invisible to the Luan user. Operations on numbers follow the same rules of |
373 | 140 the underlying Java implementation. |
141 | |
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142 <em>String</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>String</em>. |
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143 <em>Binary</em> is implemented as the Java type <em>byte[]</em>. |
373 | 144 |
145 | |
146 <p> | |
147 Luan can call (and manipulate) functions written in Luan and | |
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148 functions written in Java (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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149 Both are represented by the type <em>function</em>. |
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150 |
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151 |
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152 <p> |
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153 The type <em>java</em> is provided to allow arbitrary Java objects to |
373 | 154 be stored in Luan variables. |
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155 A <em>java</em> value is a Java object that isn't one of the standard Luan types. |
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156 Java values have no predefined operations in Luan, |
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157 except assignment and identity test. |
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158 Java values are useful when Java access is enabled in Luan |
373 | 159 |
160 | |
161 | |
162 <p> | |
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163 The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays, |
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164 that is, arrays that can be indexed not only with numbers, |
373 | 165 but with any Luan value except <b>nil</b>. |
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166 Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>; |
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167 that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>). |
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168 Any key with value <b>nil</b> is not considered part of the table. |
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169 Conversely, any key that is not part of a table has |
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170 an associated value <b>nil</b>. |
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171 |
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172 |
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173 <p> |
373 | 174 Tables are the sole data-structuring mechanism in Luan; |
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175 they can be used to represent ordinary arrays, sequences, |
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176 symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc. |
373 | 177 To represent records, Luan uses the field name as an index. |
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178 The language supports this representation by |
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179 providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>. |
373 | 180 There are several convenient ways to create tables in Luan |
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181 (see <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>). |
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182 |
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183 |
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184 <p> |
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185 We use the term <em>sequence</em> to denote a table where |
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186 the set of all positive numeric keys is equal to {1..<em>n</em>} |
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187 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>, |
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188 which is called the length of the sequence (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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189 |
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190 |
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191 <p> |
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192 Like indices, |
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193 the values of table fields can be of any type. |
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194 In particular, |
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195 because functions are first-class values, |
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196 table fields can contain functions. |
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197 Thus tables can also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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198 |
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199 |
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200 <p> |
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201 The indexing of tables follows |
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202 the definition of raw equality in the language. |
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203 The expressions <code>a[i]</code> and <code>a[j]</code> |
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204 denote the same table element |
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205 if and only if <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> are raw equal |
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206 (that is, equal without metamethods). |
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207 In particular, floats with integral values |
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208 are equal to their respective integers |
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209 (e.g., <code>1.0 == 1</code>). |
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210 |
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211 |
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212 <p> |
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213 Luan values are <em>objects</em>: |
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214 variables do not actually <em>contain</em> values, |
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215 only <em>references</em> to them. |
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216 Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns |
373 | 217 always manipulate references to values; |
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218 these operations do not imply any kind of copy. |
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219 |
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220 |
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221 <p> |
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222 The library function <a href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type</code></a> returns a string describing the type |
478 | 223 of a given value. |
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224 |
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225 |
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226 |
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227 |
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228 |
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229 <h3 heading><a name="env" href="#env">Environments</a></h3> |
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230 |
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231 <p> |
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232 The environment of a chunk starts with only two local variables: <code><a href="#require">require</a></code> and <code><a href="#java">java</a></code>. These are functions are used to load and access libraries and other modules. All other variables must be added to the environment using <a href="http://localhost:8080/manual.html#local_stmt">local declarations</a>. |
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233 |
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234 <p> |
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235 As will be discussed in <a href="#vars">Variables</a> and <a href=#assignment">Assignment</a>, |
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236 any reference to a free name |
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237 (that is, a name not bound to any declaration) <code>var</code> |
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238 can be syntactically translated to <code>_ENV.var</code> if <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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239 |
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240 |
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241 <h3 heading><a name="error" href="#error">Error Handling</a></h3> |
373 | 242 |
243 <p> | |
244 Luan code can explicitly generate an error by calling the | |
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245 <a href="#Luan.error"><code>error</code></a> function. |
373 | 246 If you need to catch errors in Luan, |
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247 you can use <a href="#Luan.pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> or <a href="#Luan.try"><code>try</code></a> |
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248 to call a given function in <em>protected mode</em>. |
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249 |
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250 |
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251 <p> |
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252 Whenever there is an error, |
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253 an <em>error table</em> |
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254 is propagated with information about the error. |
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255 See <a href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error</code></a>. |
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256 |
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257 |
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258 |
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259 <h3 heading><a name="meta" href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></h3> |
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260 |
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261 <p> |
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262 Every table in Luan can have a <em>metatable</em>. |
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263 This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Luan table |
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264 that defines the behavior of the original value |
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265 under certain special operations. |
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266 You can change several aspects of the behavior |
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267 of operations over a value by setting specific fields in its metatable. |
373 | 268 For instance, when a table is the operand of an addition, |
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269 Luan checks for a function in the field "<code>__add</code>" of the table's metatable. |
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270 If it finds one, |
373 | 271 Luan calls this function to perform the addition. |
272 | |
273 | |
274 <p> | |
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275 The keys in a metatable are derived from the <em>event</em> names; |
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276 the corresponding values are called <ii>metamethods</em>. |
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277 In the previous example, the event is <code>"add"</code> |
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278 and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition. |
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279 |
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280 |
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281 <p> |
373 | 282 You can query the metatable of any table |
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283 using the <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a> function. |
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284 |
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285 |
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286 <p> |
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287 You can replace the metatable of tables |
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288 using the <a href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>set_metatable</code></a> function. |
373 | 289 |
290 | |
291 <p> | |
292 A metatable controls how a table behaves in | |
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293 arithmetic operations, bitwise operations, |
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294 order comparisons, concatenation, length operation, calls, and indexing. |
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295 |
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296 |
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297 <p> |
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298 A detailed list of events controlled by metatables is given next. |
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299 Each operation is identified by its corresponding event name. |
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300 The key for each event is a string with its name prefixed by |
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301 two underscores, '<code>__</code>'; |
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302 for instance, the key for operation "add" is the |
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303 string "<code>__add</code>". |
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304 Note that queries for metamethods are always raw; |
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305 the access to a metamethod does not invoke other metamethods. |
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306 You can emulate how Luan queries a metamethod for an object <code>obj</code> |
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307 with the following code: |
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308 |
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309 <pre> |
373 | 310 raw_get(get_metatable(obj) or {}, "__" .. event_name) |
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311 </pre> |
373 | 312 |
313 <p> | |
314 Here are the events: | |
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315 |
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316 <ul> |
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317 |
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318 <li><p><b>"add": </b> |
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319 the <code>+</code> operation. |
373 | 320 |
321 If any operand for an addition is a table, | |
322 Luan will try to call a metamethod. | |
323 First, Luan will check the first operand (even if it is valid). | |
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324 If that operand does not define a metamethod for the "<code>__add</code>" event, |
373 | 325 then Luan will check the second operand. |
326 If Luan can find a metamethod, | |
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327 it calls the metamethod with the two operands as arguments, |
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328 and the result of the call |
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329 (adjusted to one value) |
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330 is the result of the operation. |
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331 Otherwise, |
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332 it raises an error. |
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333 </li> |
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334 |
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335 <li><p><b>"sub": </b> |
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336 the <code>-</code> operation. |
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337 |
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338 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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339 </li> |
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340 |
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341 <li><p><b>"mul": </b> |
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342 the <code>*</code> operation. |
371
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343 |
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344 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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345 </li> |
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346 |
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347 <li><p><b>"div": </b> |
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348 the <code>/</code> operation. |
371
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349 |
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350 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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351 </li> |
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352 |
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353 <li><p><b>"mod": </b> |
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354 the <code>%</code> operation. |
371
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355 |
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356 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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357 </li> |
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358 |
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359 <li><p><b>"pow": </b> |
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360 the <code>^</code> (exponentiation) operation. |
371
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361 |
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362 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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363 </li> |
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364 |
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365 <li><p><b>"unm": </b> |
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366 the <code>-</code> (unary minus) operation. |
371
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367 |
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368 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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369 </li> |
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370 |
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371 <li><p><b>"concat": </b> |
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372 the <code>..</code> (concatenation) operation. |
373 | 373 |
374 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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375 </li> |
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376 |
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377 <li><p><b>"len": </b> |
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378 the <code>#</code> (length) operation. |
373 | 379 |
371
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380 If there is a metamethod, |
373 | 381 Luan calls it with the object as argument, |
371
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382 and the result of the call |
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383 (always adjusted to one value) |
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384 is the result of the operation. |
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385 If there is no metamethod but the object is a table, |
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386 then Luan uses the table length operation (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
373 | 387 Otherwise, Luan raises an error. |
371
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388 </li> |
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389 |
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390 <li><p><b>"eq": </b> |
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391 the <code>==</code> (equal) operation. |
371
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392 |
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393 Behavior similar to the "add" operation, |
373 | 394 except that Luan will try a metamethod only when the values |
395 being compared are both tables | |
371
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396 and they are not primitively equal. |
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397 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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398 </li> |
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399 |
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400 <li><p><b>"lt": </b> |
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401 the <code><</code> (less than) operation. |
373 | 402 |
403 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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404 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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405 </li> |
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406 |
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407 <li><p><b>"le": </b> |
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408 the <code><=</code> (less equal) operation. |
371
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409 |
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410 Unlike other operations, |
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411 The less-equal operation can use two different events. |
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412 First, Luan looks for the "<code>__le</code>" metamethod in both operands, |
371
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413 like in the "lt" operation. |
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414 If it cannot find such a metamethod, |
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415 then it will try the "<code>__lt</code>" event, |
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416 assuming that <code>a <= b</code> is equivalent to <code>not (b < a)</code>. |
371
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417 As with the other comparison operators, |
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418 the result is always a boolean. |
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419 </li> |
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420 |
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421 <li><p><b>"index": </b> |
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422 The indexing access <code>table[key]</code>. |
373 | 423 |
424 This event happens | |
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425 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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426 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
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427 |
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428 |
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429 <p> |
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430 Despite the name, |
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431 the metamethod for this event can be any type. |
371
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432 If it is a function, |
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433 it is called with <code>table</code> and <code>key</code> as arguments. |
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434 Otherwise |
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435 the final result is the result of indexing this metamethod object with <code>key</code>. |
371
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436 (This indexing is regular, not raw, |
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437 and therefore can trigger another metamethod if the metamethod object is a table.) |
371
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438 </li> |
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439 |
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440 <li><p><b>"new_index": </b> |
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441 The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>. |
371
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442 |
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443 Like the index event, |
373 | 444 this event happens when |
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445 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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446 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
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447 |
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448 |
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449 <p> |
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450 Like with indexing, |
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451 the metamethod for this event can be either a function or a table. |
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452 If it is a function, |
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453 it is called with <code>table</code>, <code>key</code>, and <code>value</code> as arguments. |
371
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454 If it is a table, |
373 | 455 Luan does an indexing assignment to this table with the same key and value. |
371
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456 (This assignment is regular, not raw, |
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457 and therefore can trigger another metamethod.) |
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458 |
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459 |
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460 <p> |
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461 Whenever there is a "new_index" metamethod, |
373 | 462 Luan does not perform the primitive assignment. |
371
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463 (If necessary, |
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464 the metamethod itself can call <a href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>raw_set</code></a> |
371
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465 to do the assignment.) |
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466 </li> |
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467 |
1272 | 468 <li><p><b>"gc":</b> |
469 This is when a table is garbage collected. When the table's <a href="https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#finalize()">finalize</a> method is called by the Java garbage collector, if there is a "<code>__gc</code>" metamethod then it is called with the table as a parameter. | |
470 | |
471 </li> | |
472 | |
371
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473 </ul> |
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474 |
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475 |
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476 |
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477 |
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478 <h3 heading><a name="gc" href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></h3> |
380 | 479 |
480 <p> | |
481 Luan uses Java's garbage collection. | |
482 | |
483 | |
484 | |
485 | |
486 | |
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487 <h2 heading><a name="lang" href="#lang">The Language</a></h2> |
380 | 488 |
489 <p> | |
490 This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Luan. | |
371
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491 In other words, |
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492 this section describes |
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493 which tokens are valid, |
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494 how they can be combined, |
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495 and what their combinations mean. |
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496 |
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497 |
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498 <p> |
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499 Language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation, |
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500 in which |
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501 {<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and |
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502 [<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>. |
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503 Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal, |
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504 keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>, |
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505 and other terminal symbols are shown like ‘<b>=</b>’. |
380 | 506 The complete syntax of Luan can be found in <a href="#9">§9</a> |
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507 at the end of this manual. |
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508 |
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509 |
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510 |
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511 <h3 heading><a name="lex" href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></h3> |
380 | 512 |
513 <p> | |
514 Luan ignores spaces and comments | |
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515 between lexical elements (tokens), |
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516 except as delimiters between names and keywords. |
685 | 517 Luan considers the end of a line to be the end of a statement. This catches errors and encourages readability. If you want to continue a statement on another line, you can use a backslash followed by a newline which will be treated as white space. |
562
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518 |
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519 <p> |
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520 <em>Names</em> |
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521 (also called <em>identifiers</em>) |
380 | 522 in Luan can be any string of letters, |
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523 digits, and underscores, |
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524 not beginning with a digit. |
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525 Identifiers are used to name variables, table fields, and labels. |
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526 |
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527 |
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528 <p> |
562
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529 The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved |
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530 and cannot be used as names: |
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531 |
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532 |
562
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533 <pre> |
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534 and break do else elseif end |
1092 | 535 end_do end_for end_function end_if end_while |
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536 false for function goto if in |
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537 local nil not or repeat return |
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538 then true until while |
562
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539 </pre> |
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540 |
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541 <p> |
380 | 542 Luan is a case-sensitive language: |
562
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543 <code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code> |
371
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544 are two different, valid names. |
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545 |
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546 |
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547 <p> |
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548 The following strings denote other tokens: |
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549 |
562
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550 <pre> |
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551 + - * / % ^ # |
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552 & ~ | << >> // |
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553 == ~= <= >= < > = |
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554 ( ) { } [ ] :: |
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555 ; : , . .. ... |
562
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556 </pre> |
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557 |
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558 <p> |
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559 <em>Literal strings</em> |
371
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560 can be delimited by matching single or double quotes, |
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561 and can contain the following C-like escape sequences: |
562
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562 '<code>\a</code>' (bell), |
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563 '<code>\b</code>' (backspace), |
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564 '<code>\f</code>' (form feed), |
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565 '<code>\n</code>' (newline), |
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566 '<code>\r</code>' (carriage return), |
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567 '<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab), |
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568 '<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab), |
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569 '<code>\\</code>' (backslash), |
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570 '<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]), |
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571 and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]). |
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572 A backslash followed by a real newline |
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573 results in a newline in the string. |
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574 The escape sequence '<code>\z</code>' skips the following span |
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575 of white-space characters, |
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576 including line breaks; |
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577 it is particularly useful to break and indent a long literal string |
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578 into multiple lines without adding the newlines and spaces |
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579 into the string contents. |
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580 |
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581 |
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582 <p> |
380 | 583 Luan can specify any character in a literal string by its numerical value. |
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584 This can be done |
562
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585 with the escape sequence <code>\x<em>XX</em></code>, |
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586 where <em>XX</em> is a sequence of exactly two hexadecimal digits, |
793 | 587 or with the escape sequence <code>\u<em>XXXX</em></code>, |
588 where <em>XXXX</em> is a sequence of exactly four hexadecimal digits, | |
562
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589 or with the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>, |
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590 where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits. |
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591 (Note that if a decimal escape sequence is to be followed by a digit, |
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592 it must be expressed using exactly three digits.) |
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593 |
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594 |
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595 <p> |
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596 Literal strings can also be defined using a long format |
562
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597 enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>. |
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598 We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening |
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599 square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another |
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600 opening square bracket. |
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601 So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>, |
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602 an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>, |
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603 and so on. |
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604 A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly; |
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605 for instance, |
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606 a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>. |
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607 A <em>long literal</em> starts with an opening long bracket of any level and |
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608 ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level. |
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609 It can contain any text except a closing bracket of the same level. |
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610 Literals in this bracketed form can run for several lines, |
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611 do not interpret any escape sequences, |
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612 and ignore long brackets of any other level. |
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613 Any kind of end-of-line sequence |
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614 (carriage return, newline, carriage return followed by newline, |
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615 or newline followed by carriage return) |
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616 is converted to a simple newline. |
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617 |
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618 |
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619 <p> |
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621 explicitly affected by the previous rules represents itself. |
380 | 622 However, Luan opens files for parsing in text mode, |
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623 and the system file functions may have problems with |
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624 some control characters. |
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625 So, it is safer to represent |
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626 non-text data as a quoted literal with |
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627 explicit escape sequences for non-text characters. |
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628 |
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629 |
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630 <p> |
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631 For convenience, |
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632 when the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline, |
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633 the newline is not included in the string. |
380 | 634 As an example |
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635 the five literal strings below denote the same string: |
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636 |
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637 <pre> |
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638 a = 'alo\n123"' |
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639 a = "alo\n123\"" |
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640 a = '\97lo\10\04923"' |
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641 a = [[alo |
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642 123"]] |
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643 a = [==[ |
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644 alo |
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645 123"]==] |
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646 </pre> |
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647 |
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648 <p> |
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649 A <em>numerical constant</em> (or <em>numeral</em>) |
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650 can be written with an optional fractional part |
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651 and an optional decimal exponent, |
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652 marked by a letter '<code>e</code>' or '<code>E</code>'. |
380 | 653 Luan also accepts hexadecimal constants, |
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654 which start with <code>0x</code> or <code>0X</code>. |
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655 Hexadecimal constants also accept an optional fractional part |
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656 plus an optional binary exponent, |
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657 marked by a letter '<code>p</code>' or '<code>P</code>'. |
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658 A numeric constant with a fractional dot or an exponent |
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659 denotes a float; |
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660 otherwise it denotes an integer. |
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661 Examples of valid integer constants are |
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662 |
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663 <pre> |
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664 3 345 0xff 0xBEBADA |
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665 </pre> |
382 | 666 |
667 <p> | |
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668 Examples of valid float constants are |
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669 |
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670 <pre> |
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671 3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 34e1 |
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672 0x0.1E 0xA23p-4 0X1.921FB54442D18P+1 |
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673 </pre> |
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674 |
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675 <p> |
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676 A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>) |
371
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677 anywhere outside a string. |
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678 If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket, |
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679 the comment is a <em>short comment</em>, |
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680 which runs until the end of the line. |
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681 Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>, |
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682 which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket. |
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683 Long comments are frequently used to disable code temporarily. |
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684 |
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685 |
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686 |
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687 |
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688 |
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689 <h3 heading><a name="vars" href="#vars">Variables</a></h3> |
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690 |
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691 <p> |
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692 Variables are places that store values. |
380 | 693 There are three kinds of variables in Luan: |
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694 global variables, local variables, and table fields. |
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695 |
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696 <p> |
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697 A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable |
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698 (or a function's formal parameter, |
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699 which is a particular kind of local variable): |
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700 |
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701 <pre> |
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702 var ::= Name |
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703 </pre> |
382 | 704 |
705 <p> | |
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706 Name denotes identifiers, as defined in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>. |
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707 |
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708 <p> |
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709 Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>: |
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710 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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711 defined inside their scope (see <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>). |
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712 |
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713 |
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714 <p> |
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715 Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>. |
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716 |
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717 <p> |
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718 Square brackets are used to index a table: |
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719 |
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720 <pre> |
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721 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ |
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722 </pre> |
382 | 723 |
724 <p> | |
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725 The meaning of accesses to table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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726 An access to an indexed variable <code>t[i]</code> is equivalent to |
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727 a call <code>gettable_event(t,i)</code>. |
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728 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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729 <code>gettable_event</code> function. |
380 | 730 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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731 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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732 |
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733 |
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734 <p> |
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735 The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for |
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736 <code>var["Name"]</code>: |
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737 |
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738 <pre> |
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739 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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740 </pre> |
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741 |
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742 <p> |
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743 Global variables are not available by default. To enable global variable, you must define <code>_ENV</code> as a local variable whose value is a table. If <code>_ENV</code> is not defined, then an unrecognized variable name will produce a compile error. If <code>_ENV</code> is defined then an access to an unrecognized variable name will be consider a global variable. So then an acces to global variable <code>x</code> |
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744 is equivalent to <code>_ENV.x</code>. |
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745 Due to the way that chunks are compiled, |
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746 <code>_ENV</code> is never a global name (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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747 |
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748 |
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749 |
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750 |
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751 |
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752 <h3 heading><a name="stmts" href="#stmts">Statements</a></h3> |
389 | 753 |
754 <p> | |
755 Luan supports an almost conventional set of statements, | |
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756 similar to those in Pascal or C. |
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757 This set includes |
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758 assignments, control structures, function calls, |
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759 and variable declarations. |
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760 |
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761 |
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762 |
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763 <h4 heading><a name="blocks" href="#blocks">Blocks</a></h4> |
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764 |
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765 <p> |
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766 A block is a list of statements, |
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767 which are executed sequentially: |
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768 |
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769 <pre> |
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770 block ::= {stat} |
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771 </pre> |
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772 |
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773 <p> |
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774 Luan has <em>empty statements</em> |
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775 that allow you to separate statements with semicolons, |
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776 start a block with a semicolon |
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777 or write two semicolons in sequence: |
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778 |
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779 <pre> |
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780 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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781 </pre> |
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782 |
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783 <p> |
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784 A block can be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement: |
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785 |
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786 <pre> |
1092 | 787 stat ::= <b>do</b> block end_do |
788 end_do ::= <b>end_do</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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789 </pre> |
389 | 790 |
791 <p> | |
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792 Explicit blocks are useful |
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793 to control the scope of variable declarations. |
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794 Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to |
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795 add a <b>return</b> statement in the middle |
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796 of another block (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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797 |
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798 |
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799 |
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800 |
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801 |
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802 <h4 heading><a name="chunks" href="#chunks">Chunks</a></h4> |
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803 |
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804 <p> |
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805 The unit of compilation of Luan is called a <em>chunk</em>. |
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806 Syntactically, |
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807 a chunk is simply a block: |
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808 |
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809 <pre> |
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810 chunk ::= block |
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811 </pre> |
395 | 812 |
813 <p> | |
814 Luan handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function | |
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815 with a variable number of arguments |
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816 (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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817 As such, chunks can define local variables, |
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818 receive arguments, and return values. |
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819 |
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820 |
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821 <p> |
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822 A chunk can be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program. |
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823 To execute a chunk, |
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824 Luan first <em>loads</em> it, |
395 | 825 compiling the chunk's code, |
826 and then Luan executes the compiled code. | |
827 | |
828 | |
829 | |
830 | |
831 | |
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832 <h4 heading><a name="assignment" href="#assignment">Assignment</a></h4> |
395 | 833 |
834 <p> | |
835 Luan allows multiple assignments. | |
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836 Therefore, the syntax for assignment |
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837 defines a list of variables on the left side |
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838 and a list of expressions on the right side. |
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839 The elements in both lists are separated by commas: |
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840 |
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841 <pre> |
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842 stat ::= varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist |
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843 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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844 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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845 </pre> |
395 | 846 |
847 <p> | |
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848 Expressions are discussed in <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>. |
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849 |
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850 |
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851 <p> |
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852 Before the assignment, |
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853 the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of |
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854 the list of variables. |
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855 If there are more values than needed, |
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856 the excess values are thrown away. |
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857 If there are fewer values than needed, |
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858 the list is extended with as many <b>nil</b>'s as needed. |
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859 If the list of expressions ends with a function call, |
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860 then all values returned by that call enter the list of values, |
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861 before the adjustment |
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862 (except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>). |
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863 |
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864 |
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865 <p> |
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866 The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions |
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867 and only then the assignments are performed. |
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868 Thus the code |
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869 |
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870 <pre> |
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871 i = 3 |
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872 i, a[i] = i+1, 20 |
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873 </pre> |
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874 |
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875 <p> |
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876 sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code> |
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877 because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3) |
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878 before it is assigned 4. |
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879 Similarly, the line |
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880 |
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881 <pre> |
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882 x, y = y, x |
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883 </pre> |
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884 |
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885 <p> |
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886 exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>, |
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887 and |
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888 |
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889 <pre> |
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890 x, y, z = y, z, x |
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891 </pre> |
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892 |
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893 <p> |
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894 cyclically permutes the values of <code>x</code>, <code>y</code>, and <code>z</code>. |
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895 |
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896 |
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897 <p> |
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898 The meaning of assignments to global variables |
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899 and table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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900 An assignment to an indexed variable <code>t[i] = val</code> is equivalent to |
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901 <code>settable_event(t,i,val)</code>. |
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902 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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903 <code>settable_event</code> function. |
395 | 904 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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905 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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906 |
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907 |
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908 <p> |
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909 An assignment to a global name <code>x = val</code> |
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910 is equivalent to the assignment |
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911 <code>_ENV.x = val</code> (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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912 Global names are only available when <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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913 |
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914 |
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915 |
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916 <h4 heading><a name="control" href="#control">Control Structures</a></h4> |
395 | 917 |
918 <p> | |
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919 The control structures |
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920 <b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and |
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921 familiar syntax: |
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922 |
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923 <pre> |
1092 | 924 stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_while |
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925 stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
1092 | 926 stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] end_if |
927 end_while ::= <b>end_while</b> | <b>end</b> | |
928 end_if ::= <b>end_if</b> | <b>end</b> | |
562
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929 </pre> |
395 | 930 |
931 <p> | |
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932 Luan also has a <b>for</b> statement (see <a href="#for">For Statement</a>). |
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933 |
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934 |
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935 <p> |
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936 The condition expression of a |
395 | 937 control structure must be a boolean. |
938 Any other value type will produce an error. | |
939 This helps catch errors and makes code more readable. | |
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940 |
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941 |
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942 <p> |
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943 In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop, |
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944 the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword, |
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945 but only after the condition. |
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946 So, the condition can refer to local variables |
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947 declared inside the loop block. |
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948 |
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949 |
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950 <p> |
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951 The <b>break</b> statement terminates the execution of a |
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952 <b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop, |
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953 skipping to the next statement after the loop: |
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954 |
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955 |
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956 <pre> |
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957 stat ::= <b>break</b> |
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958 </pre> |
395 | 959 |
960 <p> | |
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961 A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop. |
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962 |
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963 |
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964 <p> |
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965 The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values |
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966 from a function or a chunk |
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967 (which is an anonymous function). |
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968 |
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969 Functions can return more than one value, |
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970 so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is |
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971 |
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972 <pre> |
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973 stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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974 </pre> |
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975 |
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976 |
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977 |
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978 |
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979 <h4 heading><a name="for" href="#for">For Statement</a></h4> |
395 | 980 |
981 <p> | |
982 The <b>for</b> statement works over functions, | |
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983 called <em>iterators</em>. |
395 | 984 On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value, |
985 stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>. | |
986 The <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax: | |
987 | |
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988 <pre> |
1092 | 989 stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_for |
395 | 990 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
1092 | 991 end_for ::= <b>end_for</b> | <b>end</b> |
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992 </pre> |
395 | 993 |
994 <p> | |
995 A <b>for</b> statement like | |
996 | |
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997 <pre> |
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998 for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>exp</em> do <em>block</em> end |
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999 </pre> |
395 | 1000 |
1001 <p> | |
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1002 is equivalent to the code: |
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1003 |
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1004 <pre> |
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1005 do |
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1006 local <em>f</em> = <em>exp</em> |
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1007 while true do |
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1008 local <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> = <em>f</em>() |
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1009 if <em>var_1</em> == nil then break end |
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1010 <em>block</em> |
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1011 end |
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1012 end |
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1013 </pre> |
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1014 |
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1015 <p> |
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1016 Note the following: |
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1017 |
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1018 <ul> |
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1019 |
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1020 <li> |
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1021 <code><em>exp</em></code> is evaluated only once. |
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1022 Its result is an <em>iterator</em> function. |
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1023 </li> |
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1024 |
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1025 <li> |
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1026 <code><em>f</em></code> is an invisible variable. |
395 | 1027 The name is here for explanatory purposes only. |
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1028 </li> |
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1029 |
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1030 <li> |
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1031 You can use <b>break</b> to exit a <b>for</b> loop. |
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1032 </li> |
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1033 |
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1034 <li> |
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1035 The loop variables <code><em>var_i</em></code> are local to the loop; |
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1036 you cannot use their values after the <b>for</b> ends. |
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1037 If you need these values, |
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1038 then assign them to other variables before breaking or exiting the loop. |
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1039 </li> |
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1040 |
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1041 </ul> |
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1042 |
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1043 |
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1044 |
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1045 |
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1046 <h4 heading><a name="fn_stmt" href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></h4> |
395 | 1047 |
1048 <p> | |
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1049 To allow possible side-effects, |
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1050 function calls can be executed as statements: |
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1051 |
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1052 <pre> |
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1053 stat ::= functioncall |
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1054 </pre> |
395 | 1055 |
1056 <p> | |
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1057 In this case, all returned values are thrown away. |
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1058 Function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>. |
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1059 |
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1060 |
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1061 |
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1062 <h4 heading><a name="local_stmt" href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></h4> |
395 | 1063 |
1064 <p> | |
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1065 Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block. |
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1066 The declaration can include an initial assignment: |
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1067 |
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1068 <pre> |
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1069 stat ::= <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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1070 </pre> |
395 | 1071 |
1072 <p> | |
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1073 If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics |
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1074 of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#assignment">Assignment</a>). |
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1075 Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>. |
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1076 |
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1077 |
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1078 <p> |
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1079 A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#chunks">Chunks</a>), |
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1080 and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block. |
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1081 |
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1082 |
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1083 <p> |
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1084 The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>. |
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1085 |
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1086 |
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1087 <h4 heading><a name="template_stmt" href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></h4> |
465 | 1088 |
1089 <p>Template statements are based on <a href="#template_expr">template exressions</a> and provide the full equivalent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a> but in a general way. Template statements write the equivalent template exression to standard output. For example:</p> | |
1090 | |
1325
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1091 <pre> |
465 | 1092 local name = "Bob" |
1093 %> | |
469 | 1094 Hello <%= name %>! |
1095 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1096 <% |
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1097 </pre> |
465 | 1098 |
1099 <p>is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1100 | |
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1101 <pre> |
465 | 1102 local name = "Bob" |
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1103 require("luan:Io.luan").stdout.write( %> |
469 | 1104 Hello <%= name %>! |
1105 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1106 <% ) |
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1107 </pre> |
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1108 |
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1109 |
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1110 |
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1111 <h3 heading><a name="expressions" href="#expressions">Expressions</a></h3> |
395 | 1112 |
1113 <p> | |
1114 The basic expressions in Luan are the following: | |
1115 | |
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1116 <pre> |
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1117 exp ::= prefixexp |
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1118 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> |
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1119 exp ::= Numeral |
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1120 exp ::= LiteralString |
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1121 exp ::= functiondef |
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1122 exp ::= tableconstructor |
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1123 exp ::= ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1124 exp ::= exp binop exp |
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1125 exp ::= unop exp |
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1126 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1127 </pre> |
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1128 |
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1129 <p> |
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1130 Numerals and literal strings are explained in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>; |
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1131 variables are explained in <a href="#vars">Variables</a>; |
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1132 function definitions are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>; |
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1133 function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>; |
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1134 table constructors are explained in <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>. |
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1135 Vararg expressions, |
562
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1136 denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used when |
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1137 directly inside a vararg function; |
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1138 they are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>. |
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1139 |
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1140 |
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1141 <p> |
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1142 Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1143 relational operators (see <a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1144 and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a>). |
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1145 Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1146 the unary logical <b>not</b> (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1147 and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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1148 |
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1149 |
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1150 <p> |
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1151 Both function calls and vararg expressions can result in multiple values. |
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1152 If a function call is used as a statement (see <a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a>), |
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1153 then its return list is adjusted to zero elements, |
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1154 thus discarding all returned values. |
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1155 If an expression is used as the last (or the only) element |
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1156 of a list of expressions, |
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1157 then no adjustment is made |
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1158 (unless the expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1159 In all other contexts, |
395 | 1160 Luan adjusts the result list to one element, |
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1161 either discarding all values except the first one |
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1162 or adding a single <b>nil</b> if there are no values. |
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1163 |
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1164 |
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1165 <p> |
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1166 Here are some examples: |
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1167 |
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1168 <pre> |
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1169 f() -- adjusted to 0 results |
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1170 g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1171 g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f() |
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1172 a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil) |
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1173 a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg parameter, b gets |
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1174 -- the second (both a and b can get nil if there |
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1175 -- is no corresponding vararg parameter) |
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1176 |
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1177 a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results |
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1178 a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results |
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1179 return f() -- returns all results from f() |
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1180 return ... -- returns all received vararg parameters |
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1181 return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f() |
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1182 {f()} -- creates a list with all results from f() |
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1183 {...} -- creates a list with all vararg parameters |
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1184 {f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1185 </pre> |
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1186 |
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1187 <p> |
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1188 Any expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value. |
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1189 Thus, |
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1190 <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value, |
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1191 even if <code>f</code> returns several values. |
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1192 (The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code> |
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1193 or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.) |
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1194 |
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1195 |
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1196 |
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1197 <h4 heading><a name="arithmetic" href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></h4> |
395 | 1198 |
1199 <p> | |
1200 Luan supports the following arithmetic operators: | |
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1201 |
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1202 <ul> |
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1203 <li><b><code>+</code>: </b>addition</li> |
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1204 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>subtraction</li> |
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1205 <li><b><code>*</code>: </b>multiplication</li> |
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1206 <li><b><code>/</code>: </b>division</li> |
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1207 <li><b><code>%</code>: </b>modulo</li> |
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1208 <li><b><code>^</code>: </b>exponentiation</li> |
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1209 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>unary minus</li> |
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1210 </ul> |
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1211 |
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1212 <p> |
395 | 1213 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and unary minus are the same as these operators in Java. Exponentiation uses Java's <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Math.html#pow(double,%20double)">Math.pow</a> function. |
371
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1214 |
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1215 <p> |
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1216 Modulo is defined as the remainder of a division |
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1217 that rounds the quotient towards minus infinite (floor division). |
395 | 1218 (The Java modulo operator is not used.) |
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1219 |
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1220 |
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1221 |
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1222 <h4 heading><a name="conversions" href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></h4> |
396 | 1223 |
1224 <p> | |
465 | 1225 Luan generally avoids automatic conversions. |
1226 String concatenation automatically converts all of its arguments to strings. | |
1227 | |
1228 <p> | |
1229 Luan provides library functions for explicit type conversions. | |
371
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1230 |
396 | 1231 |
1232 | |
1233 | |
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1234 <h4 heading><a name="relational" href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1235 |
1236 <p> | |
1237 Luan supports the following relational operators: | |
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1238 |
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1239 <ul> |
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1240 <li><b><code>==</code>: </b>equality</li> |
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1241 <li><b><code>~=</code>: </b>inequality</li> |
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1242 <li><b><code><</code>: </b>less than</li> |
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1243 <li><b><code>></code>: </b>greater than</li> |
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1244 <li><b><code><=</code>: </b>less or equal</li> |
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1245 <li><b><code>>=</code>: </b>greater or equal</li> |
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1246 </ul><p> |
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1247 These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1248 |
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1249 |
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1250 <p> |
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1251 Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands. |
371
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1252 If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>. |
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1253 Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared. |
396 | 1254 Strings, numbers, and binary values are compared in the obvious way (by value). |
1255 | |
1256 <p> | |
1257 Tables | |
371
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1258 are compared by reference: |
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1259 two objects are considered equal only if they are the same object. |
396 | 1260 Every time you create a new table, |
1261 it is different from any previously existing table. | |
1262 Closures are also compared by reference. | |
1263 | |
1264 <p> | |
417 | 1265 You can change the way that Luan compares tables |
464
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1266 by using the "eq" metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
371
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1267 |
396 | 1268 <p> |
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1269 Java values are compared for equality with the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#equals(java.lang.Object)"><code>equals</code></a> method. |
371
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1270 |
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1271 <p> |
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1272 Equality comparisons do not convert strings to numbers |
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1273 or vice versa. |
562
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1274 Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>, |
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1275 and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different |
371
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1276 entries in a table. |
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1277 |
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1278 |
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1279 <p> |
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1280 The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>). |
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1281 |
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1282 |
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1283 <p> |
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1284 The order operators work as follows. |
396 | 1285 |
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1286 If both arguments are numbers, |
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1287 then they are compared following |
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1288 the usual rule for binary operations. |
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1289 Otherwise, if both arguments are strings, |
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1290 then their values are compared according to the current locale. |
396 | 1291 Otherwise, Luan tries to call the "lt" or the "le" |
464
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1292 metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
562
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1293 A comparison <code>a > b</code> is translated to <code>b < a</code> |
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1294 and <code>a >= b</code> is translated to <code>b <= a</code>. |
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1295 |
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1296 |
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1297 |
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1298 |
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1299 |
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1300 <h4 heading><a name="logical_ops" href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1301 |
1302 <p> | |
1303 The logical operators in Luan are | |
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1304 <b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>. |
396 | 1305 The <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false |
1306 and anything else as true. | |
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1307 Like the control structures (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>), |
396 | 1308 the <b>not</b> operator requires a boolean value. |
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1309 |
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1310 <p> |
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1311 The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1312 The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument |
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1313 if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>; |
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1314 otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument. |
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1315 The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument |
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1316 if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>; |
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1317 otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument. |
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1318 Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-circuit evaluation; |
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1319 that is, |
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1320 the second operand is evaluated only if necessary. |
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1321 Here are some examples: |
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1322 |
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1323 <pre> |
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1324 10 or 20 --> 10 |
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1325 10 or error() --> 10 |
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1326 nil or "a" --> "a" |
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1327 nil and 10 --> nil |
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1328 false and error() --> false |
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1329 false and nil --> false |
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1330 false or nil --> nil |
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1331 10 and 20 --> 20 |
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1332 </pre> |
396 | 1333 |
1334 <p> | |
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1335 (In this manual, |
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1336 <code>--></code> indicates the result of the preceding expression.) |
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1337 |
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1338 |
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1339 |
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1340 <h4 heading><a name="concatenation" href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></h4> |
396 | 1341 |
1342 <p> | |
1343 The string concatenation operator in Luan is | |
562
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1344 denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>'). |
396 | 1345 All operands are converted to strings. |
1346 | |
1347 | |
1348 | |
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1349 <h4 heading><a name="length" href="#length">The Length Operator</a></h4> |
562
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1350 |
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1351 <p> |
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1352 The length operator is denoted by the unary prefix operator <code>#</code>. |
396 | 1353 The length of a string is its number of characters. |
1354 The length of a binary is its number of bytes. | |
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1355 |
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1356 |
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1357 <p> |
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1358 A program can modify the behavior of the length operator for |
562
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1359 any table through the <code>__len</code> metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
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1360 |
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1361 |
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1362 <p> |
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1363 Unless a <code>__len</code> metamethod is given, |
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1364 the length of a table <code>t</code> is defined |
396 | 1365 as the number of elements in <em>sequence</em>, |
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1366 that is, |
396 | 1367 the size of the set of its positive numeric keys is equal to <em>{1..n}</em> |
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1368 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>. |
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1369 In that case, <em>n</em> is its length. |
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1370 Note that a table like |
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1371 |
562
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1372 <pre> |
371
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1373 {10, 20, nil, 40} |
562
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1374 </pre> |
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1375 |
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1376 <p> |
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1377 has a length of <code>2</code>, because that is the last key in sequence. |
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1378 |
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1379 |
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1380 |
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1381 |
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1382 |
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1383 <h4 heading><a name="precedence" href="#precedence">Precedence</a></h4> |
396 | 1384 |
1385 <p> | |
1386 Operator precedence in Luan follows the table below, | |
371
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1387 from lower to higher priority: |
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1388 |
562
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1389 <pre> |
371
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1390 or |
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1391 and |
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1392 < > <= >= ~= == |
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1393 .. |
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1394 + - |
396 | 1395 * / % |
1396 unary operators (not # -) | |
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1397 ^ |
562
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1398 </pre> |
396 | 1399 |
1400 <p> | |
371
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1401 As usual, |
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1402 you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression. |
562
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1403 The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>') |
371
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1404 operators are right associative. |
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1405 All other binary operators are left associative. |
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1406 |
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1407 |
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1408 |
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1409 |
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1410 |
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1411 <h4 heading><a name="constructors" href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></h4> |
396 | 1412 |
1413 <p> | |
371
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1414 Table constructors are expressions that create tables. |
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1415 Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created. |
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1416 A constructor can be used to create an empty table |
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1417 or to create a table and initialize some of its fields. |
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1418 The general syntax for constructors is |
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1419 |
562
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1420 <pre> |
604
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1421 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ fieldlist ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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1422 fieldlist ::= [field] {fieldsep [field]} |
371
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1423 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
604
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1424 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ | <b>end_of_line</b> |
562
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1425 </pre> |
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1426 |
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1427 <p> |
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1428 Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry |
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1429 with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>. |
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1430 A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to |
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1431 <code>["name"] = exp</code>. |
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1432 Finally, fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to |
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1433 <code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive integers |
371
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1434 starting with 1. |
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1435 Fields in the other formats do not affect this counting. |
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1436 For example, |
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1437 |
562
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1438 <pre> |
371
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1439 a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 } |
562
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1440 </pre> |
396 | 1441 |
1442 <p> | |
371
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1443 is equivalent to |
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1444 |
562
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1445 <pre> |
371
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1446 do |
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1447 local t = {} |
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1448 t[f(1)] = g |
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1449 t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp |
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1450 t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp |
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1451 t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1 |
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1452 t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp |
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1453 t[30] = 23 |
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1454 t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp |
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1455 a = t |
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1456 end |
562
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1457 </pre> |
371
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1458 |
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1459 <p> |
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1460 The order of the assignments in a constructor is undefined. |
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1461 (This order would be relevant only when there are repeated keys.) |
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1462 |
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1463 |
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1464 <p> |
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1465 If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code> |
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1466 and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression, |
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1467 then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively |
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1468 (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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1469 |
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1470 |
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1471 <p> |
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1472 The field list can have an optional trailing separator, |
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1473 as a convenience for machine-generated code. |
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1474 |
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1475 |
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1476 |
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1477 |
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1478 |
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1479 <h4 heading><a name="fn_calls" href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></h4> |
417 | 1480 |
1481 <p> | |
1482 A function call in Luan has the following syntax: | |
1483 | |
562
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1484 <pre> |
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1485 functioncall ::= prefixexp args |
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1486 </pre> |
417 | 1487 |
1488 <p> | |
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1489 In a function call, |
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1490 first prefixexp and args are evaluated. |
685 | 1491 The value of prefixexp must have type <em>function</em>. |
1492 This function is called | |
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1493 with the given arguments. |
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1494 |
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1495 |
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1496 <p> |
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1497 Arguments have the following syntax: |
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1498 |
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1499 <pre> |
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1500 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1501 args ::= tableconstructor |
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1502 args ::= LiteralString |
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1503 </pre> |
417 | 1504 |
1505 <p> | |
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1506 All argument expressions are evaluated before the call. |
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1507 A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is |
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1508 syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>; |
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1509 that is, the argument list is a single new table. |
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1510 A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code> |
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1511 (or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>) |
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1512 is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>; |
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1513 that is, the argument list is a single literal string. |
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1514 |
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1515 |
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1516 |
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1517 |
1327
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1518 <h4 heading><a name="fn_def" href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></h4> |
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1519 |
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1520 <p> |
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1521 The syntax for function definition is |
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1522 |
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1523 <pre> |
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1524 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
1092 | 1525 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block end_function |
1526 end_function ::= <b>end_function</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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1527 </pre> |
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1528 |
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1529 <p> |
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1530 The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions: |
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1531 |
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1532 <pre> |
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1533 stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
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1534 stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
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1535 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
562
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1536 </pre> |
417 | 1537 |
1538 <p> | |
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1539 The statement |
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1540 |
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1541 <pre> |
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1542 function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1543 </pre> |
417 | 1544 |
1545 <p> | |
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1546 translates to |
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1547 |
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1548 <pre> |
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1549 f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1550 </pre> |
417 | 1551 |
1552 <p> | |
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1553 The statement |
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1554 |
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1555 <pre> |
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1556 function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end |
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1557 </pre> |
417 | 1558 |
1559 <p> | |
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1560 translates to |
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1561 |
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1562 <pre> |
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1563 t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1564 </pre> |
417 | 1565 |
1566 <p> | |
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1567 The statement |
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1568 |
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1569 <pre> |
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1570 local function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1571 </pre> |
417 | 1572 |
1573 <p> | |
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1574 translates to |
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1575 |
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1576 <pre> |
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1577 local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1578 </pre> |
417 | 1579 |
1580 <p> | |
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1581 not to |
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1582 |
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1583 <pre> |
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1584 local f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1585 </pre> |
417 | 1586 |
1587 <p> | |
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1588 (This only makes a difference when the body of the function |
562
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1589 contains references to <code>f</code>.) |
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1590 |
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|
1591 |
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1592 <p> |
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1593 A function definition is an executable expression, |
562
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1594 whose value has type <em>function</em>. |
417 | 1595 When Luan precompiles a chunk, |
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1596 all its function bodies are precompiled too. |
417 | 1597 Then, whenever Luan executes the function definition, |
562
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1598 the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>). |
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1599 This function instance (or <em>closure</em>) |
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1600 is the final value of the expression. |
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1601 |
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1602 |
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1603 <p> |
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1604 Parameters act as local variables that are |
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1605 initialized with the argument values: |
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1606 |
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1607 <pre> |
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1608 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1609 </pre> |
417 | 1610 |
1611 <p> | |
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1612 When a function is called, |
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1613 the list of arguments is adjusted to |
1090
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799
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1614 the length of the list of parameters if the list is too short, |
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1615 unless the function is a <em>vararg function</em>, |
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1616 which is indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>') |
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1617 at the end of its parameter list. |
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1618 A vararg function does not adjust its argument list; |
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1619 instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them |
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1620 to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>, |
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1621 which is also written as three dots. |
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1622 The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments, |
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1623 similar to a function with multiple results. |
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1624 If a vararg expression is used inside another expression |
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1625 or in the middle of a list of expressions, |
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1626 then its return list is adjusted to one element. |
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1627 If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions, |
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1628 then no adjustment is made |
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1629 (unless that last expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1630 |
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|
1631 |
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1632 <p> |
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1633 As an example, consider the following definitions: |
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1634 |
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1635 <pre> |
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1636 function f(a, b) end |
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1637 function g(a, b, ...) end |
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1638 function r() return 1,2,3 end |
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1639 </pre> |
417 | 1640 |
1641 <p> | |
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1642 Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and |
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1643 to the vararg expression: |
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1644 |
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1645 <pre> |
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1646 CALL PARAMETERS |
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1647 |
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1648 f(3) a=3, b=nil |
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1649 f(3, 4) a=3, b=4 |
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1650 f(3, 4, 5) runtime error |
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1651 f(r(), 10) runtime error |
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1652 f(r()) runtime error |
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1653 |
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1654 g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing) |
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1655 g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing) |
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1656 g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8 |
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1657 g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3 |
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1658 </pre> |
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1659 |
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1660 <p> |
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1661 Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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1662 If control reaches the end of a function |
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1663 without encountering a <b>return</b> statement, |
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1664 then the function returns with no results. |
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1665 |
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1666 |
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1667 <h4 heading><a name="template_expr" href="#template_expr">Template Expressions</a></h4> |
465 | 1668 |
1669 <p>Luan template expression are based on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a>. Template expressions return multiple values. Here is an example:</p> | |
1670 | |
1325
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1671 <pre> |
465 | 1672 local name = "Bob" |
469 | 1673 write( %>Hello <%= name %>!<% ) |
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1674 </pre> |
465 | 1675 |
1676 <p>This is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1677 | |
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1678 <pre> |
465 | 1679 local name = "Bob" |
1680 write( "Hello ", name, "!" ) | |
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1681 </pre> |
465 | 1682 |
1683 <p>The strings in template expressions may be multiple lines.</p> | |
1684 | |
417 | 1685 |
1686 | |
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1687 <h3 heading><a name="visibility" href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></h3> |
417 | 1688 |
1689 <p> | |
1690 Luan is a lexically scoped language. | |
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1691 The scope of a local variable begins at the first statement after |
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1692 its declaration and lasts until the last non-void statement |
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1693 of the innermost block that includes the declaration. |
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1694 Consider the following example: |
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1695 |
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1696 <pre> |
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1697 x = 10 -- global variable |
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1698 do -- new block |
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1699 local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10 |
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1700 print(x) --> 10 |
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1701 x = x+1 |
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1702 do -- another block |
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1703 local x = x+1 -- another 'x' |
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1704 print(x) --> 12 |
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1705 end |
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1706 print(x) --> 11 |
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1707 end |
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1708 print(x) --> 10 (the global one) |
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1709 </pre> |
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1710 |
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1711 <p> |
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1712 Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>, |
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1713 the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet, |
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1714 and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable. |
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1715 |
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1716 |
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1717 <p> |
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1718 Because of the lexical scoping rules, |
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1719 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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1720 defined inside their scope. |
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1721 A local variable used by an inner function is called |
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1722 an <em>upvalue</em>, or <em>external local variable</em>, |
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1723 inside the inner function. |
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1724 |
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1725 |
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1726 <p> |
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1727 Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement |
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1728 defines new local variables. |
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1729 Consider the following example: |
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1730 |
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1731 <pre> |
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1732 a = {} |
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1733 local x = 20 |
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1734 for i=1,10 do |
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1735 local y = 0 |
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1736 a[i] = function () y=y+1; return x+y end |
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1737 end |
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1738 </pre> |
417 | 1739 |
1740 <p> | |
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1741 The loop creates ten closures |
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1742 (that is, ten instances of the anonymous function). |
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1743 Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable, |
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1744 while all of them share the same <code>x</code>. |
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1745 |
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1746 |
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1747 |
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1748 |
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1749 |
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1750 <h2 heading><a name="libs" href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a></h2> |
468 | 1751 |
1752 <p> | |
1753 The standard Luan libraries provide useful functions | |
1754 that are implemented both in Java and in Luan itself. | |
1755 How each function is implemented shouldn't matter to the user. | |
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1756 Some of these functions provide essential services to the language |
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1757 (e.g., <a href="#Luan.type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a>); |
468 | 1758 others provide access to "outside" services (e.g., I/O). |
1759 | |
1760 | |
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1761 <h3 heading><a name="default_lib" href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></h3> |
468 | 1762 |
1763 <p> | |
1764 These are provided by default as local variables for any Luan code as described in <a href="#env">Environments</a>. | |
1765 | |
470 | 1766 |
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1767 <h4 heading><a name="java" href="#java"><code>java ()</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1768 |
1769 <p> | |
1770 This function enables Java in the current chunk if that chunk has permission to use Java. If the chunk doesn't have permission to use Java, then an error is thrown. | |
1771 | |
1772 | |
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1773 <h4 heading><a name="require" href="#require"><code>require (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1774 |
1775 <p> | |
1776 Example use: | |
1777 | |
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1778 <pre> |
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1779 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
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1780 </pre> |
470 | 1781 |
1782 <p> | |
1783 Could be defined as: | |
1784 | |
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1785 <pre> |
470 | 1786 local function require(mod_name) |
476 | 1787 return <a href="#Package.load">Package.load</a>(mod_name) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("module '"..mod_name.."' not found") |
470 | 1788 end |
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1789 </pre> |
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1790 |
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1791 |
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1792 <h3 heading><a name="luan_lib" href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></h3> |
470 | 1793 |
1794 <p> | |
1795 Include this library by: | |
1796 | |
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1797 <pre> |
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1798 local Luan = require "luan:Luan.luan" |
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1799 </pre> |
470 | 1800 |
476 | 1801 <p> |
470 | 1802 The basic library provides basic functions to Luan that don't depend on other libaries. |
1803 | |
1804 | |
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1805 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.do_file" href="#Luan.do_file"><code>Luan.do_file ([uri])</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1806 |
1807 <p> | |
1808 Could be defined as: | |
1809 | |
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1810 <pre> |
470 | 1811 function Luan.do_file(uri) |
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1812 local fn = <a href="#Luan.load_file">Luan.load_file</a>(uri) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("file '"..uri.."' not found") |
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1813 return fn() |
470 | 1814 end |
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1815 </pre> |
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1816 |
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1817 |
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1818 |
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1819 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.error" href="#Luan.error"><code>Luan.error (message)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1820 |
1821 <p> | |
482 | 1822 Throws an error containing the message. |
1823 | |
1824 <p> | |
1825 Could be defined as: | |
1826 | |
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1827 <pre> |
482 | 1828 function Luan.error(message) |
1829 <a href="#Luan.new_error">Luan.new_error</a>(message).throw() | |
1830 end | |
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1831 </pre> |
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1832 |
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1833 |
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1834 |
695 | 1835 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.eval" href="#Luan.eval"><code>Luan.eval (text [, source_name])</code></a></h4> |
1836 | |
1837 <p> | |
1838 Evaluates <code>text</code> as a Luan expression. | |
1839 | |
1840 <p> | |
1841 Could be defined as: | |
1842 | |
1843 <pre> | |
1844 function Luan.eval(text,source_name) | |
1845 return Luan.load( "return "..text, source_name or "eval" )() | |
1846 end | |
1847 </pre> | |
1848 | |
1849 | |
1850 | |
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1851 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.get_metatable" href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>Luan.get_metatable (table)</code></a></h4> |
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1852 |
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1853 <p> |
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1854 If <code>table</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>. |
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1855 Otherwise, |
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1856 if the table's metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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1857 returns the associated value. |
470 | 1858 Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given table. |
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1859 |
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1860 |
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1861 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.ipairs" href="#Luan.ipairs"><code>Luan.ipairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
474 | 1862 |
1863 <p> | |
1864 Returns an iterator function | |
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1865 so that the construction |
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1866 |
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1867 <pre> |
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1868 for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1869 </pre> |
474 | 1870 |
1871 <p> | |
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1872 will iterate over the key–value pairs |
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1873 (<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ..., |
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1874 up to the first nil value. |
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1875 |
474 | 1876 <p> |
1877 Could be defined as: | |
1878 | |
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1879 <pre> |
474 | 1880 function Luan.ipairs(t) |
1881 local i = 0 | |
1882 return function() | |
1883 if i < #t then | |
1884 i = i + 1 | |
1885 return i, t[i] | |
1886 end | |
1887 end | |
1888 end | |
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1889 </pre> |
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1890 |
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1891 |
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1892 |
695 | 1893 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load" href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load (text, source_name [, env])</code></a></h4> |
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1894 |
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1895 <p> |
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1896 Loads a chunk. |
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1897 |
474 | 1898 <p> |
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1899 The <code>text</code> is compiled. |
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1900 If there are no syntactic errors, |
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1901 returns the compiled chunk as a function; |
474 | 1902 otherwise, throws an error. |
1903 | |
1904 <p> | |
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1905 The <code>source_name</code> parameter is a string saying where the text came from. It is used to produce error messages. |
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1906 |
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1907 <p> |
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1908 If the <code>env</code> parameter is supplied, it becomes the <code>_ENV</code> of the chunk. |
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1909 |
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1910 |
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1911 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load_file" href="#Luan.load_file"><code>Luan.load_file ([file_uri])</code></a></h4> |
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1912 |
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1913 <p> |
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1914 Similar to <a href="#Luan.load"><code>load</code></a>, |
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1915 but gets the chunk from file <code>file_uri</code> |
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1916 or from the standard input, |
474 | 1917 if no file uri is given. |
1918 | |
1919 <p> | |
1920 Could be defined as: | |
1921 | |
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1922 <pre> |
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1923 function Luan.load_file(file_uri) |
474 | 1924 file_uri = file_uri or "stdin:" |
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1925 local f = Io.uri(file_uri) |
1316
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1926 if not f.exists() then |
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1927 return nil |
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1928 end |
474 | 1929 return <a href="#Luan.load">Luan.load</a>( f.read_text(), file_uri ) |
1930 end | |
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1931 </pre> |
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1932 |
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1933 |
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1934 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.new_error" href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error (message)</code></a></h4> |
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1935 |
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1936 <p> |
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1937 Creates a new error table containing the message assigned to "<code>message</code>". The error table also contains a <code>throw</code> function which throws the error. The table also contains a list of stack trace elements where each stack trace element is a table containing "<code>source</code>", "<code>line</code>", and possible "<code>call_to</code>". The table also has a metatable containing "<code>__to_string</code>" to render the error. |
482 | 1938 |
1939 <p> | |
1940 To print the current stack trace, you could do: | |
1941 | |
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1942 <pre> |
482 | 1943 Io.print( Luan.new_error "stack" ) |
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1944 </pre> |
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1945 |
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1946 |
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1947 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pairs" href="#Luan.pairs"><code>Luan.pairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
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1948 |
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1949 <p> |
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1950 If <code>t</code> has a metamethod <code>__pairs</code>, |
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1951 calls it with <code>t</code> as argument and returns the |
475 | 1952 result from the call. |
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1953 |
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1954 |
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1955 <p> |
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1956 Otherwise, |
475 | 1957 returns a function |
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1958 so that the construction |
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1959 |
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1960 <pre> |
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1961 for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1962 </pre> |
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1963 |
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1964 <p> |
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1965 will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>. |
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1966 |
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1967 |
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1968 |
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1969 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pcall" href="#Luan.pcall"><code>Luan.pcall (f [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h4> |
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1970 |
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1971 <p> |
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1972 Calls function <code>f</code> with |
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1973 the given arguments in <em>protected mode</em>. |
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1974 This means that any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated; |
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1975 instead, <code>pcall</code> catches the error |
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1976 and returns a status code. |
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1977 Its first result is the status code (a boolean), |
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1978 which is true if the call succeeds without errors. |
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1979 In such case, <code>pcall</code> also returns all results from the call, |
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1980 after this first result. |
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1981 In case of any error, <code>pcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error. |
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1982 |
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1983 |
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1984 |
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1985 |
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1986 <p> |
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1987 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3> |
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1988 Receives any number of arguments |
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1989 and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>, |
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1990 using the <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> function to convert each argument to a string. |
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1991 <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output, |
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1992 but only as a quick way to show a value, |
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1993 for instance for debugging. |
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1994 For complete control over the output, |
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1995 use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.write"><code>io.write</code></a>. |
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1996 |
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1997 |
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1998 |
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1999 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.range" href="#Luan.range"><code>Luan.range (start, stop [, step])</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2000 |
2001 <p> | |
2002 Based on <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html#range">the Python range() function</a>, this lets one iterate through a sequence of numbers. | |
2003 | |
2004 <p> | |
2005 Example use: | |
2006 | |
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2007 <pre> |
476 | 2008 for i in range(1,10) do |
2009 Io.print("count up:",i) | |
2010 end | |
2011 for i in range(10,0,-1) do | |
2012 Io.print("count down:",i) | |
2013 end | |
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2014 </pre> |
476 | 2015 |
2016 <p> | |
2017 Could be defined as: | |
2018 | |
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2019 <pre> |
476 | 2020 function Luan.range(start, stop, step) |
2021 step = step or 1 | |
478 | 2022 step == 0 and <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a> "bad argument #3 (step may not be zero)" |
476 | 2023 local i = start |
2024 return function() | |
2025 if step > 0 and i <= stop or step < 0 and i >= stop then | |
2026 local rtn = i | |
2027 i = i + step | |
2028 return rtn | |
2029 end | |
2030 end | |
2031 end | |
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2032 </pre> |
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2033 |
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2034 |
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2035 |
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2036 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_equal" href="#Luan.raw_equal"><code>Luan.raw_equal (v1, v2)</code></a></h4> |
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2037 |
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2038 <p> |
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2039 Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>, |
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2040 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2041 Returns a boolean. |
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2042 |
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2043 |
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2044 |
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2045 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_get" href="#Luan.raw_get"><code>Luan.raw_get (table, index)</code></a></h4> |
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2046 |
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2047 <p> |
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2048 Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>, |
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2049 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2050 <code>table</code> must be a table; |
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2051 <code>index</code> may be any value. |
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2052 |
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2053 |
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2054 |
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2055 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_len" href="#Luan.raw_len"><code>Luan.raw_len (v)</code></a></h4> |
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2056 |
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2057 <p> |
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2058 Returns the length of the object <code>v</code>, |
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2059 which must be a table or a string, |
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2060 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2061 Returns an integer. |
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2062 |
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2063 |
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2064 |
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2065 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_set" href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>Luan.raw_set (table, index, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2066 |
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2067 <p> |
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2068 Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>, |
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2069 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2070 <code>table</code> must be a table, |
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2071 <code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b>, |
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2072 and <code>value</code> any Lua value. |
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2073 |
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2074 |
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2075 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.set_metatable" href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>Luan.set_metatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2076 |
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2077 <p> |
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2078 Sets the metatable for the given table. |
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2079 If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>, |
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2080 removes the metatable of the given table. |
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2081 If the original metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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2082 raises an error. |
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2083 |
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2084 |
1189 | 2085 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.stringify" href="#Luan.stringify"><code>Luan.stringify (v [,strict])</code></a></h4> |
2086 | |
2087 <p> | |
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2088 Receives a value of any type and converts it to a string that is a Luan expression. <code>strict</code> is a string. If <code>strict</code> is 'strict' then invalid types throw an error. If <code>strict</code> is nil then invalid types are represented but the resulting expression is invalid. <code>strict</code> defaults to <b>nil</b>. |
1189 | 2089 |
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2090 |
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2091 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.to_string" href="#Luan.to_string"><code>Luan.to_string (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2092 |
2093 <p> | |
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2094 Receives a value of any type and |
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2095 converts it to a string in a human-readable format. |
475 | 2096 |
2097 <p> | |
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2098 If the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>"__to_string"</code> field, |
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2099 then <code>to_string</code> calls the corresponding value |
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2100 with <code>v</code> as argument, |
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2101 and uses the result of the call as its result. |
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2102 |
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2103 |
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2104 |
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2105 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.try" href="#Luan.try"><code>Luan.try (t, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2106 |
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2107 <p> |
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2108 Implements try-catch as found in other languages where each block is in table <code>t</code>. <code>t[1]</code> is the "try" block. The <code>t.catch</code> and <code>t.finally</code> blocks are optional. Any extra arguments are passed to the "try" function. Returns the result of the "try" block or the "catch" block. |
476 | 2109 |
2110 <p> | |
2111 Example use: | |
2112 | |
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2113 <pre> |
476 | 2114 try { |
2115 function() | |
2116 a_dangerous_fn() | |
702 | 2117 end |
476 | 2118 catch = function(e) |
2119 -- handle error | |
702 | 2120 end |
476 | 2121 finally = function() |
2122 -- clean up | |
702 | 2123 end |
476 | 2124 } |
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2125 </pre> |
476 | 2126 |
482 | 2127 <p> |
2128 Could be defined as: | |
2129 | |
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2130 <pre> |
482 | 2131 function Luan.try(t) |
2132 local r = { <a href="#Luan.pcall">Luan.pcall</a>(t[1]) } | |
2133 if r[1] then | |
2134 Table.remove(r,1) | |
2135 elseif t.catch ~= nil then | |
2136 r = { t.catch(r[2]) } | |
2137 else | |
2138 t.finally and t.finally() | |
2139 r[2].throw() | |
2140 end | |
2141 t.finally and t.finally() | |
2142 return Table.unpack(r) | |
2143 end | |
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2144 </pre> |
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2145 |
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2146 |
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2147 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.type" href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2148 |
2149 <p> | |
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2150 Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string. |
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2151 The possible results of this function are |
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2152 "<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>), |
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2153 "<code>number</code>", |
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2154 "<code>string</code>", |
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2155 "<code>binary</code>", |
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2156 "<code>boolean</code>", |
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2157 "<code>table</code>", |
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2158 "<code>function</code>", |
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2159 and "<code>java</code>". |
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2160 |
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2161 |
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2162 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.values" href="#Luan.values"><code>Luan.values (···)</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2163 |
2164 <p> | |
2165 Returns a function so that the construction | |
2166 | |
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2167 <pre> |
1276 | 2168 for i, v in Luan.values(···) do <em>body</em> end |
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2169 </pre> |
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2170 |
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2171 <p> |
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2172 will iterate over all values of <code>···</code>. |
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2173 |
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2174 |
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2175 |
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2176 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.VERSION" href="#Luan.VERSION"><code>Luan.VERSION</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2177 |
2178 <p> | |
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2179 A global variable (not a function) that |
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2180 holds a string containing the current Luan version. |
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2181 |
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2182 |
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2183 |
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2184 |
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2185 |
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2186 |
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2187 <h3 heading><a name="package_lib" href="#package_lib">Modules</a></h3> |
476 | 2188 |
2189 <p> | |
2190 Include this library by: | |
2191 | |
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2192 <pre> |
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2193 local Package = require "luan:Package.luan" |
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2194 </pre> |
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2195 |
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2196 <p> |
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2197 The package library provides basic |
476 | 2198 facilities for loading modules in Luan. |
2199 | |
2200 | |
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2201 <h4 heading><a name="Package.load" href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
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2202 |
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2203 <p> |
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2204 Loads the given module. |
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2205 The function starts by looking into the <a href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a> table |
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2206 to determine whether <code>mod_uri</code> is already loaded. |
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2207 If it is, then <code>Package.load</code> returns the value stored |
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2208 at <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. |
476 | 2209 Otherwise, it tries to load a new value for the module. |
2210 | |
2211 <p> | |
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2212 To load a new value, <code>Package.load</code> first checks if <code>mod_uri</code> starts with "<b>java:</b>". If yes, then this is a Java class which is loaded by special Java code. |
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2213 |
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2214 <p> |
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2215 Otherwise <code>Package.load</code> tries to read the text of the file referred to by <code>mod_uri</code>. If the file doesn't exist, then <code>Package.load</code> returns <b>false</b>. If the file exists, then its content is compiled into a chunk by calling <a href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load</code></a>. This chunk is run passing in <code>mod_uri</code> as an argument. The value returned by the chunk must not be <b>nil</b> and is loaded. |
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2216 |
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2217 <p> |
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2218 If a new value for the module successful loaded, then it is stored in <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. The value is returned. |
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2219 |
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2220 |
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2221 |
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2222 |
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2223 <h4 heading><a name="Package.loaded" href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a></h4> |
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2224 |
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2225 |
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2226 <p> |
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2227 A table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> to control which |
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2228 modules are already loaded. |
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2229 When you load a module <code>mod_uri</code> and |
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2230 <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code> is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2231 <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> simply returns the value stored there. |
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2232 |
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2233 |
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2234 <p> |
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2235 This variable is only a reference to the real table; |
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2236 assignments to this variable do not change the |
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2237 table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a>. |
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2238 |
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2239 |
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2240 |
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2241 |
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2242 |
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2243 |
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2244 <h3 heading><a name="string_lib" href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></h3> |
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2245 |
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2246 <p> |
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2247 Include this library by: |
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2248 |
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2249 <pre> |
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2250 local String = require "luan:String.luan" |
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2251 </pre> |
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2252 |
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2253 <p> |
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2254 This library provides generic functions for string manipulation, |
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2255 such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching. |
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2256 When indexing a string in Luan, the first character is at position 1 |
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2257 (not at 0, as in Java). |
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2258 Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards, |
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2259 from the end of the string. |
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2260 Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on. |
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2261 |
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2262 |
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2263 |
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2264 <h4 heading><a name="String.char" href="#String.char"><code>String.char (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2265 |
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2266 <p> |
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2267 Receives zero or more integers. |
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2268 Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments, |
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2269 in which each character has the internal numerical code equal |
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2270 to its corresponding argument. |
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2271 |
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2272 |
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2273 <h4 heading><a name="String.concat" href="#String.concat"><code>String.concat (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2274 |
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2275 <p> |
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2276 Concatenates the <a href="#Luan.to_string"><code>to_string</code></a> value of all arguments. |
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2277 |
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2278 |
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2279 |
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2280 <h4 heading><a name="String.encode" href="#String.encode"><code>String.encode (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2281 |
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2282 <p> |
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2283 Encodes argument <code>s</code> into a string that can be placed in quotes so as to return the original value of the string. |
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2284 |
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2285 |
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2286 |
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2287 |
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2288 <h4 heading><a name="String.find" href="#String.find"><code>String.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h4> |
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2289 |
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2290 <p> |
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2291 Looks for the first match of |
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2292 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2293 If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code> |
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2294 where this occurrence starts and ends; |
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2295 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2296 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2297 where to start the search; |
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2298 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2299 A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code> |
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2300 turns off the pattern matching facilities, |
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2301 so the function does a plain "find substring" operation, |
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2302 with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered magic. |
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2303 Note that if <code>plain</code> is given, then <code>init</code> must be given as well. |
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2304 |
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2305 <p> |
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2306 If the pattern has captures, |
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2307 then in a successful match |
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2308 the captured values are also returned, |
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2309 after the two indices. |
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2310 |
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2311 |
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2312 |
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2313 |
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2314 <h4 heading><a name="String.format" href="#String.format"><code>String.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2315 |
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2316 |
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2317 <p> |
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2318 Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments |
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2319 following the description given in its first argument (which must be a string). |
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2320 The format string follows the same rules as the Java function <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#format(java.lang.String,%20java.lang.Object...)"><code>String.format</code></a> because Luan calls this internally. |
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2321 |
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2322 <p> |
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2323 Note that Java's <code>String.format</code> is too stupid to convert between ints and floats, so you must provide the right kind of number. |
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2324 |
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2325 |
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2326 |
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2327 <h4 heading><a name="String.gmatch" href="#String.gmatch"><code>String.gmatch (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2328 |
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2329 <p> |
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2330 Returns an iterator function that, |
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2331 each time it is called, |
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2332 returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) |
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2333 over the string <code>s</code>. |
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2334 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2335 then the whole match is produced in each call. |
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2336 |
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2337 |
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2338 <p> |
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2339 As an example, the following loop |
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2340 will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>, |
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2341 printing one per line: |
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2342 |
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2343 <pre> |
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2344 local s = "hello world from Lua" |
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2345 for w in String.gmatch(s, [[\w+]]) do |
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2346 print(w) |
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2347 end |
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2348 </pre> |
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2349 |
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2350 <p> |
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2351 The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the |
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2352 given string into a table: |
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2353 |
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2354 <pre> |
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2355 local t = {} |
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2356 local s = "from=world, to=Lua" |
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2357 for k, v in String.gmatch(s, [[(\w+)=(\w+)]]) do |
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2358 t[k] = v |
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2359 end |
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2360 </pre> |
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2361 |
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2362 <p> |
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2363 For this function, a caret '<code>^</code>' at the start of a pattern does not |
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2364 work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration. |
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2365 |
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2366 |
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2367 |
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2368 <h4 heading><a name="String.gsub" href="#String.gsub"><code>String.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h4> |
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2369 |
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2370 <p> |
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2371 Returns a copy of <code>s</code> |
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2372 in which all (or the first <code>n</code>, if given) |
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2373 occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) have been |
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2374 replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>, |
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2375 which can be a string, a table, or a function. |
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2376 <code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value, |
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2377 the total number of matches that occurred. |
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2378 The name <code>gsub</code> comes from <em>Global SUBstitution</em>. |
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2379 |
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2380 |
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2381 <p> |
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2382 If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement. |
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2383 The character <code>\</code> works as an escape character. |
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2384 Any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>$<em>d</em></code>, |
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2385 with <em>d</em> between 1 and 9, |
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2386 stands for the value of the <em>d</em>-th captured substring. |
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2387 The sequence <code>$0</code> stands for the whole match. |
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2388 |
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2389 |
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2390 <p> |
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2391 If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match, |
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2392 using the first capture as the key. |
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2393 |
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2394 |
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2395 <p> |
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2396 If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a |
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2397 match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments, |
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2398 in order. |
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2399 |
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2400 |
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2401 <p> |
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2402 In any case, |
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2403 if the pattern specifies no captures, |
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2404 then it behaves as if the whole pattern was inside a capture. |
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2405 |
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2406 |
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2407 <p> |
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2408 If the value returned by the table query or by the function call |
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2409 is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2410 then it is used as the replacement string; |
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2411 otherwise, if it is <b>nil</b>, |
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2412 then there is no replacement |
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2413 (that is, the original match is kept in the string). |
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2414 |
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2415 |
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2416 <p> |
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2417 Here are some examples: |
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2418 |
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2419 <pre> |
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2420 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[(\w+)]], "$1 $1") |
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2421 --> x="hello hello world world" |
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2422 |
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2423 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[\w+]], "$0 $0", 1) |
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2424 --> x="hello hello world" |
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2425 |
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2426 x = String.gsub("hello world from Luan", [[(\w+)\s*(\w+)]], "$2 $1") |
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2427 --> x="world hello Luan from" |
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2428 |
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2429 x = String.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", [[\$(.*?)\$]], function (s) |
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2430 return load(s)() |
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2431 end) |
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2432 --> x="4+5 = 9" |
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2433 |
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2434 local t = {name="lua", version="5.3"} |
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2435 x = String.gsub("$name-$version.tar.gz", [[\$(\w+)]], t) |
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2436 --> x="lua-5.3.tar.gz" |
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2437 </pre> |
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2438 |
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2439 |
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2440 |
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2441 <h4 heading><a name="String.literal" href="#String.literal"><code>String.literal (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2442 <p> |
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2443 Returns a string which matches the literal string <code>s</code> in a regular expression. This function is simply the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html#quote(java.lang.String)"><code>Pattern.quote</code></a>. |
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2444 |
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2445 |
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2446 <h4 heading><a name="String.lower" href="#String.lower"><code>String.lower (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2447 <p> |
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2448 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2449 uppercase letters changed to lowercase. |
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2450 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2451 |
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2452 |
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2453 |
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2454 |
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2455 <h4 heading><a name="String.match" href="#String.match"><code>String.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2456 |
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2457 <p> |
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2458 Looks for the first <em>match</em> of |
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2459 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2460 If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns |
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2461 the captures from the pattern; |
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2462 otherwise it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2463 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2464 then the whole match is returned. |
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2465 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2466 where to start the search; |
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2467 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2468 |
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2469 |
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2470 <h4 heading><a name="String.matches" href="#String.matches"><code>String.matches (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2471 <p> |
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2472 Returns a boolean indicating whether the <code>pattern</code> can be found in string <code>s</code>. |
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2473 This function is equivalent to |
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2474 |
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2475 <pre> |
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2476 return String.match(s,pattern) ~= nil |
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2477 </pre> |
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2478 |
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2479 |
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2480 <h4 heading><a name="String.rep" href="#String.rep"><code>String.rep (s, n [, sep])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2481 <p> |
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2482 Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of |
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2483 the string <code>s</code> separated by the string <code>sep</code>. |
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2484 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string |
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2485 (that is, no separator). |
562
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2486 Returns the empty string if <code>n</code> is not positive. |
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2487 |
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2488 |
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2489 |
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2490 |
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2491 <h4 heading><a name="String.reverse" href="#String.reverse"><code>String.reverse (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2492 <p> |
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2493 Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed. |
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2494 |
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2495 |
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2496 |
1195 | 2497 <h4 heading><a name="String.split" href="#String.match"><code>String.split (s, pattern [, limit])</code></a></h4> |
2498 | |
2499 <p> | |
2500 Splits <code>s</code> using regex <code>pattern</code> and returns the results. If <code>limit</code> is positive, then only returns at most that many results. If <code>limit</code> is zero, then remove trailing empty results. | |
2501 | |
2502 | |
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2503 |
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2504 <h4 heading><a name="String.sub" href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2505 |
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2506 <p> |
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2507 Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that |
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2508 starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>; |
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2509 <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> can be negative. |
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2510 If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1 |
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2511 (which is the same as the string length). |
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2512 In particular, |
562
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2513 the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code> |
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2514 with length <code>j</code>, |
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2515 and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> returns a suffix of <code>s</code> |
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2516 with length <code>i</code>. |
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2517 |
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2518 |
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2519 <p> |
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2520 If, after the translation of negative indices, |
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2521 <code>i</code> is less than 1, |
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2522 it is corrected to 1. |
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2523 If <code>j</code> is greater than the string length, |
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2524 it is corrected to that length. |
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2525 If, after these corrections, |
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2526 <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, |
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2527 the function returns the empty string. |
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2528 |
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2529 |
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2530 |
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2531 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_binary" href="#String.to_binary"><code>String.to_binary (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2532 |
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2533 <p> |
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2534 Converts a string to a binary by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#getBytes()"><code>String.getBytes</code></a>. |
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2535 |
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2536 |
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2537 |
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2538 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_number" href="#String.to_number"><code>String.to_number (s [, base])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2539 |
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2540 <p> |
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2541 When called with no <code>base</code>, |
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2542 <code>to_number</code> tries to convert its argument to a number. |
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2543 If the argument is |
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2544 a string convertible to a number, |
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2545 then <code>to_number</code> returns this number; |
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2546 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2547 |
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2548 The conversion of strings can result in integers or floats. |
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2549 |
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2550 |
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2551 <p> |
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2552 When called with <code>base</code>, |
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2553 then <code>s</code> must be a string to be interpreted as |
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2554 an integer numeral in that base. |
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2555 In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case) |
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2556 represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth, |
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2557 with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35. |
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2558 If the string <code>s</code> is not a valid numeral in the given base, |
556
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2559 the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2560 |
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2561 |
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2562 |
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2563 <h4 heading><a name="String.trim" href="#String.trim"><code>String.trim (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2564 |
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2565 <p> |
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2566 Removes the leading and trailing whitespace by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#trim()"><code>String.trim</code></a>. |
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2567 |
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2568 |
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2569 |
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2570 |
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2571 <h4 heading><a name="String.unicode" href="#String.unicode"><code>String.unicode (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2572 |
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2573 <p> |
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2574 Returns the internal numerical codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>, |
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2575 <code>s[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>s[j]</code>. |
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2576 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; |
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2577 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. |
556
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2578 These indices are corrected |
562
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2579 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. |
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2580 |
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2581 |
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2582 |
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2583 |
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2584 |
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2585 <h4 heading><a name="String.upper" href="#String.upper"><code>String.upper (s)</code></a></h4> |
556
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2586 <p> |
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2587 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2588 lowercase letters changed to uppercase. |
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2589 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2590 The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale. |
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2591 |
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|
2592 |
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|
2593 |
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|
2594 |
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|
2595 |
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|
2596 <h3 heading><a name="binary_lib" href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></h3> |
567 | 2597 |
2598 <p> | |
2599 Include this library by: | |
2600 | |
2601 <pre> | |
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2602 local Binary = require "luan:Binary.luan" |
567 | 2603 </pre> |
2604 | |
2605 | |
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2606 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.binary" href="#Binary.binary"><code>Binary.binary (···)</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2607 |
2608 <p> | |
2609 Receives zero or more bytes (as integers). | |
2610 Returns a binary with length equal to the number of arguments, | |
2611 in which each byte has the internal numerical code equal | |
2612 to its corresponding argument. | |
2613 | |
2614 | |
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2615 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.byte" href="#Binary.byte"><code>Binary.byte (b [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2616 |
2617 <p> | |
2618 Returns the internal numerical codes of the bytes <code>b[i]</code>, | |
2619 <code>b[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>b[j]</code>. | |
2620 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; | |
2621 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. | |
2622 These indices are corrected | |
2623 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. | |
2624 | |
2625 | |
1257
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2626 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.to_string" href="#Binary.to_string"><code>Binary.to_string (b [,charset])</code></a></h4> |
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2627 <p> |
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2628 If <code>charset</code> is not nil then converts the binary <code>b</code> to a string using the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#String(byte[],%20java.lang.String)">String constructor</a>, else makes each byte a char. |
567 | 2629 |
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2630 |
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|
2631 |
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|
2632 |
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2633 <h3 heading><a name="table_lib" href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></h3> |
565
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2634 |
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|
2635 <p> |
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2636 Include this library by: |
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2637 |
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|
2638 <pre> |
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2639 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
565
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2640 </pre> |
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2641 |
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|
2642 <p> |
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2643 This library provides generic functions for table manipulation. |
565
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2644 It provides all its functions inside the table <code>Table</code>. |
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2645 |
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2646 |
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2647 |
642
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2648 <h4 heading><a name="Table.clear" href="#Table.clear"><code>Table.clear (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
580 | 2649 |
2650 <p> | |
2651 Clears the table. | |
2652 | |
2653 | |
642
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2654 <h4 heading><a name="Table.concat" href="#Table.concat"><code>Table.concat (list [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2655 |
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2656 <p> |
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2657 Given a list, |
371
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2658 returns the string <code>list[i]..sep..list[i+1] ··· sep..list[j]</code>. |
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2659 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string, |
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2660 the default for <code>i</code> is 1, |
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2661 and the default for <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>. |
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2662 If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string. |
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2663 |
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|
2664 |
642
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|
2665 <h4 heading><a name="Table.copy" href="#Table.copy"><code>Table.copy (tbl [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2666 |
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2667 <p> |
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2668 If <code>i</code> is <code>nil</code>, returns a shallow copy of <code>tbl</code>. |
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2669 Otherwise returns a new table which is a list of the elements <code>tbl[i] ··· tbl[j]</code>. |
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2670 By default, <code>j</code> is <code>#tbl</code>. |
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2671 |
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2672 |
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2673 |
642
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2674 <h4 heading><a name="Table.insert" href="#Table.insert"><code>Table.insert (list, pos, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2675 |
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2676 <p> |
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2677 Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>list</code>, |
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2678 shifting up the elements |
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2679 <code>list[pos], list[pos+1], ···, list[#list]</code>. |
565
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2680 |
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2681 |
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2682 |
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2683 <h4 heading><a name="Table.is_empty" href="#Table.is_empty"><code>Table.is_empty (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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2684 |
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|
2685 |
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2686 |
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2687 <h4 heading><a name="Table.pack" href="#Table.pack"><code>Table.pack (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2688 |
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2689 <p> |
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2690 Returns a new table with all parameters stored into keys 1, 2, etc. |
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2691 and with a field "<code>n</code>" with the total number of parameters. |
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2692 Note that the resulting table may not be a sequence. |
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2693 |
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2694 |
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2695 |
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2696 |
642
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2697 <h4 heading><a name="Table.remove" href="#Table.remove"><code>Table.remove (list, pos)</code></a></h4> |
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2698 |
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2699 |
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2700 <p> |
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2701 Removes from <code>list</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>, |
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2702 returning the value of the removed element. |
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|
2703 When <code>pos</code> is an integer between 1 and <code>#list</code>, |
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2704 it shifts down the elements |
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2705 <code>list[pos+1], list[pos+2], ···, list[#list]</code> |
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2706 and erases element <code>list[#list]</code>; |
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2707 The index <code>pos</code> can also be 0 when <code>#list</code> is 0, |
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2708 or <code>#list + 1</code>; |
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|
2709 in those cases, the function erases the element <code>list[pos]</code>. |
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2710 |
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|
2711 |
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2712 |
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add Table.is_empty() and Table.size()
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2713 <h4 heading><a name="Table.size" href="#Table.size"><code>Table.size (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2714 |
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|
2715 |
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2716 |
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2717 <h4 heading><a name="Table.sort" href="#Table.sort"><code>Table.sort (list [, comp])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2718 |
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2719 <p> |
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2720 Sorts list elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>, |
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|
2721 from <code>list[1]</code> to <code>list[#list]</code>. |
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2722 If <code>comp</code> is given, |
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|
2723 then it must be a function that receives two list elements |
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2724 and returns true when the first element must come |
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|
2725 before the second in the final order |
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|
2726 (so that <code>not comp(list[i+1],list[i])</code> will be true after the sort). |
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|
2727 If <code>comp</code> is not given, |
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|
2728 then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead. |
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|
2729 |
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|
2730 <p> |
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|
2731 The sort algorithm is not stable; |
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|
2732 that is, elements considered equal by the given order |
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2733 may have their relative positions changed by the sort. |
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|
2734 |
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|
2735 |
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|
2736 |
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|
2737 <h4 heading><a name="Table.unpack" href="#Table.unpack"><code>Table.unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2738 |
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|
2739 <p> |
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|
2740 Returns the elements from the given list. |
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|
2741 This function is equivalent to |
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|
2742 |
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|
2743 <pre> |
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|
2744 return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j] |
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|
2745 </pre> |
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|
2746 |
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|
2747 <p> |
1277 | 2748 By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is <code>list.n or #list</code>. |
371
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|
2749 |
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|
2750 |
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|
2751 |
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|
2752 |
1327
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|
2753 <h3 heading><a name="number_lib" href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></h3> |
566
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|
2754 |
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|
2755 <p> |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2756 Include this library by: |
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|
2757 |
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|
2758 <pre> |
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|
2759 local Number = require "luan:Number.luan" |
566
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2760 </pre> |
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|
2761 |
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|
2762 |
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|
2763 <h4 heading><a name="Number.double" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.double (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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2764 <p> |
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2765 Returns <code>x</code> as a double. |
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|
2766 |
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|
2767 |
1342
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|
2768 <h4 heading><a name="Number.float" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.float (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2769 <p> |
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|
2770 Returns <code>x</code> as a float. |
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|
2771 |
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|
2772 |
642
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|
2773 <h4 heading><a name="Number.integer" href="#Number.integer"><code>Number.integer (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2774 <p> |
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|
2775 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an integer, |
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|
2776 returns that integer. |
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|
2777 Otherwise throws an error. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2778 |
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diff
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|
2779 |
642
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|
2780 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long" href="#Number.long"><code>Number.long (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2781 <p> |
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diff
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|
2782 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an long, |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2783 returns that long. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2784 Otherwise throws an error. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
changeset
|
2785 |
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diff
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|
2786 |
642
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|
2787 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long_to_string" href="#Number.long_to_string"><code>Number.long_to_string (i, radix)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2788 <p> |
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|
2789 Converts long value <code>i</code> to a string by calling <code><a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Long.html#toString(long,%20int)">Long.toString</a></code>. |
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|
2790 |
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diff
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|
2791 |
642
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|
2792 <h4 heading><a name="Number.type" href="#Number.type"><code>Number.type (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2793 <p> |
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|
2794 Returns a string for the numeric type of <code>x</code>. Possible return values include "<code>integer</code>", "<code>long</code>", "<code>double</code>", and "<code>float</code>". |
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|
2795 |
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|
2796 |
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|
2797 |
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|
2798 |
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|
2799 <h3 heading><a name="math_lib" href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></h3> |
566
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|
2800 |
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|
2801 <p> |
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|
2802 Include this library by: |
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|
2803 |
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|
2804 <pre> |
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|
2805 local Math = require "luan:Math.luan" |
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|
2806 </pre> |
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|
2807 |
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|
2808 <p> |
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|
2809 This library provides basic mathematical functions. |
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|
2810 It provides all its functions and constants inside the table <code>Math</code>. |
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2811 |
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|
2812 |
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2813 <h4 heading><a name="Math.abs" href="#Math.abs"><code>Math.abs (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2814 |
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|
2815 <p> |
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|
2816 Returns the absolute value of <code>x</code>. |
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|
2817 |
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|
2818 |
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2819 |
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2820 <h4 heading><a name="Math.acos" href="#Math.acos"><code>Math.acos (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2821 |
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2822 <p> |
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2823 Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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|
2824 |
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|
2825 |
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|
2826 |
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|
2827 |
642
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|
2828 <h4 heading><a name="Math.asin" href="#Math.asin"><code>Math.asin (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2829 |
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|
2830 <p> |
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|
2831 Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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2832 |
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2833 |
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|
2834 |
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2835 |
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2836 <h4 heading><a name="Math.atan" href="#Math.atan"><code>Math.atan (y, x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2837 |
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2838 <p> |
371
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2839 Returns the arc tangent of <code>y/x</code> (in radians), |
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|
2840 but uses the signs of both parameters to find the |
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|
2841 quadrant of the result. |
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|
2842 (It also handles correctly the case of <code>x</code> being zero.) |
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|
2843 |
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diff
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|
2844 |
566
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diff
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|
2845 |
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|
2846 |
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2847 <h4 heading><a name="Math.ceil" href="#Math.ceil"><code>Math.ceil (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2848 |
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|
2849 <p> |
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|
2850 Returns the smallest integral value larger than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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|
2851 |
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|
2852 |
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diff
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|
2853 |
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|
2854 |
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2855 <h4 heading><a name="Math.cos" href="#Math.cos"><code>Math.cos (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2856 |
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|
2857 <p> |
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|
2858 Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
2859 |
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diff
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|
2860 |
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diff
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|
2861 |
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|
2862 |
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2863 <h4 heading><a name="Math.deg" href="#Math.deg"><code>Math.deg (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2864 |
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|
2865 <p> |
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|
2866 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from radians to degrees. |
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|
2867 |
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diff
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|
2868 |
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diff
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|
2869 |
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|
2870 |
642
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2871 <h4 heading><a name="Math.exp" href="#Math.exp"><code>Math.exp (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2872 |
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|
2873 <p> |
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|
2874 Returns the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em> |
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|
2875 (where <code>e</code> is the base of natural logarithms). |
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|
2876 |
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diff
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|
2877 |
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diff
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|
2878 |
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diff
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|
2879 |
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2880 <h4 heading><a name="Math.floor" href="#Math.floor"><code>Math.floor (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2881 |
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|
2882 <p> |
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|
2883 Returns the largest integral value smaller than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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|
2884 |
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diff
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|
2885 |
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diff
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|
2886 |
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diff
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|
2887 |
642
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|
2888 <h4 heading><a name="Math.fmod" href="#Math.fmod"><code>Math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2889 |
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|
2890 <p> |
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|
2891 Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code> |
566
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|
2892 that rounds the quotient towards zero. |
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diff
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|
2893 |
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|
2894 |
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|
2895 |
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|
2896 |
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|
2897 <h4 heading><a name="Math.huge" href="#Math.huge"><code>Math.huge</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2898 |
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|
2899 <p> |
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|
2900 A value larger than any other numerical value. |
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diff
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|
2901 |
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|
2902 |
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|
2903 |
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|
2904 |
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|
2905 <h4 heading><a name="Math.log" href="#Math.log"><code>Math.log (x [, base])</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2906 |
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|
2907 <p> |
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|
2908 Returns the logarithm of <code>x</code> in the given base. |
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|
2909 The default for <code>base</code> is <em>e</em> |
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|
2910 (so that the function returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>). |
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|
2911 |
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diff
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|
2912 |
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diff
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|
2913 |
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|
2914 |
642
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|
2915 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max" href="#Math.max"><code>Math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2916 |
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|
2917 <p> |
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|
2918 Returns the argument with the maximum value, |
566
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diff
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|
2919 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
2920 |
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diff
changeset
|
2921 |
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changeset
|
2922 |
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|
2923 |
642
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|
2924 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max_integer" href="#Math.max_integer"><code>Math.max_integer</code></a></h4> |
566
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2925 <p> |
371
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|
2926 An integer with the maximum value for an integer. |
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|
2927 |
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changeset
|
2928 |
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changeset
|
2929 |
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|
2930 |
642
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2931 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min" href="#Math.min"><code>Math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2932 |
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changeset
|
2933 <p> |
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|
2934 Returns the argument with the minimum value, |
566
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|
2935 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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parents:
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diff
changeset
|
2936 |
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changeset
|
2937 |
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changeset
|
2938 |
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changeset
|
2939 |
642
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|
2940 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min_integer" href="#Math.min_integer"><code>Math.min_integer</code></a></h4> |
566
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2941 <p> |
371
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|
2942 An integer with the minimum value for an integer. |
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diff
changeset
|
2943 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
2944 |
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changeset
|
2945 |
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changeset
|
2946 |
642
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2947 <h4 heading><a name="Math.modf" href="#Math.modf"><code>Math.modf (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2948 |
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changeset
|
2949 <p> |
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|
2950 Returns the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>. |
566
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|
2951 |
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diff
changeset
|
2952 |
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changeset
|
2953 |
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changeset
|
2954 |
642
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2955 <h4 heading><a name="Math.pi" href="#Math.pi"><code>Math.pi</code></a></h4> |
371
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2956 |
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2957 <p> |
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|
2958 The value of <em>π</em>. |
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|
2959 |
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|
2960 |
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|
2961 |
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2962 |
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2963 <h4 heading><a name="Math.rad" href="#Math.rad"><code>Math.rad (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2964 |
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2965 <p> |
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2966 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from degrees to radians. |
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2967 |
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2968 |
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|
2969 |
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2970 |
642
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2971 <h4 heading><a name="Math.random" href="#Math.random"><code>Math.random ([m [, n])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2972 |
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2973 |
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2974 <p> |
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2975 When called without arguments, |
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2976 returns a pseudo-random float with uniform distribution |
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|
2977 in the range <em>[0,1)</em>. |
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2978 When called with two integers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>, |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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2979 <code>Math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random integer |
371
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2980 with uniform distribution in the range <em>[m, n]</em>. |
566
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2981 (The value <em>m-n</em> cannot be negative and must fit in a Luan integer.) |
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2982 The call <code>Math.random(n)</code> is equivalent to <code>Math.random(1,n)</code>. |
371
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2983 |
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|
2984 |
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2985 <p> |
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|
2986 This function is an interface to the underling |
566
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2987 pseudo-random generator function provided by Java. |
371
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2988 No guarantees can be given for its statistical properties. |
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|
2989 |
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|
2990 |
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|
2991 |
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|
2992 |
642
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2993 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sin" href="#Math.sin"><code>Math.sin (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2994 |
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|
2995 <p> |
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|
2996 Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
2997 |
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|
2998 |
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|
2999 |
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|
3000 |
642
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|
3001 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sqrt" href="#Math.sqrt"><code>Math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
3002 |
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|
3003 <p> |
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|
3004 Returns the square root of <code>x</code>. |
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|
3005 (You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.) |
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|
3006 |
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|
3007 |
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|
3008 |
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|
3009 |
642
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|
3010 <h4 heading><a name="Math.tan" href="#Math.tan"><code>Math.tan (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
3011 |
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|
3012 <p> |
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|
3013 Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
3014 |
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|
3015 |
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|
3016 |
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|
3017 |
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|
3018 |
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changeset
|
3019 |
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diff
changeset
|
3020 |
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diff
changeset
|
3021 |
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|
3022 <h2>6.8 – <a name="6.8">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3023 |
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|
3024 <p> |
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|
3025 The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation. |
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|
3026 The first one uses implicit file handles; |
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|
3027 that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a |
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|
3028 default output file, |
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|
3029 and all input/output operations are over these default files. |
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|
3030 The second style uses explicit file handles. |
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|
3031 |
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|
3032 |
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|
3033 <p> |
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|
3034 When using implicit file handles, |
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|
3035 all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>. |
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|
3036 When using explicit file handles, |
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|
3037 the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file handle |
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|
3038 and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file handle. |
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|
3039 |
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changeset
|
3040 |
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changeset
|
3041 <p> |
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|
3042 The table <code>io</code> also provides |
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|
3043 three predefined file handles with their usual meanings from C: |
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|
3044 <a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>. |
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|
3045 The I/O library never closes these files. |
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|
3046 |
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|
3047 |
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|
3048 <p> |
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|
3049 Unless otherwise stated, |
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|
3050 all I/O functions return <b>nil</b> on failure |
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|
3051 (plus an error message as a second result and |
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|
3052 a system-dependent error code as a third result) |
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|
3053 and some value different from <b>nil</b> on success. |
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|
3054 On non-POSIX systems, |
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|
3055 the computation of the error message and error code |
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|
3056 in case of errors |
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changeset
|
3057 may be not thread safe, |
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|
3058 because they rely on the global C variable <code>errno</code>. |
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|
3059 |
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changeset
|
3060 |
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changeset
|
3061 <p> |
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|
3062 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3063 |
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changeset
|
3064 |
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|
3065 <p> |
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|
3066 Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>. |
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|
3067 Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file. |
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|
3068 |
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|
3069 |
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|
3070 |
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|
3071 |
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|
3072 <p> |
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|
3073 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3074 |
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|
3075 |
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|
3076 <p> |
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|
3077 Equivalent to <code>io.output():flush()</code>. |
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|
3078 |
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|
3079 |
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diff
changeset
|
3080 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3081 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3082 <p> |
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|
3083 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3084 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3085 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3086 <p> |
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diff
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|
3087 When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode), |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
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parents:
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changeset
|
3088 and sets its handle as the default input file. |
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3089 When called with a file handle, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3090 it simply sets this file handle as the default input file. |
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|
3091 When called without parameters, |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3092 it returns the current default input file. |
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|
3093 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3094 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3095 <p> |
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|
3096 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3097 instead of returning an error code. |
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diff
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|
3098 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3099 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3100 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3101 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3102 <p> |
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|
3103 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename ···])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3104 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3105 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3106 <p> |
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|
3107 Opens the given file name in read mode |
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|
3108 and returns an iterator function that |
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diff
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|
3109 works like <code>file:lines(···)</code> over the opened file. |
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parents:
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|
3110 When the iterator function detects the end of file, |
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|
3111 it returns no values (to finish the loop) and automatically closes the file. |
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|
3112 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3113 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3114 <p> |
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diff
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|
3115 The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent |
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parents:
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changeset
|
3116 to <code>io.input():lines("*l")</code>; |
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parents:
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|
3117 that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3118 In this case it does not close the file when the loop ends. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3119 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3120 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3121 <p> |
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diff
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|
3122 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3123 instead of returning an error code. |
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diff
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|
3124 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3125 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3126 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3127 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3128 <p> |
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|
3129 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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diff
changeset
|
3130 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3131 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3132 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3133 This function opens a file, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3134 in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>. |
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|
3135 It returns a new file handle, |
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diff
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|
3136 or, in case of errors, <b>nil</b> plus an error message. |
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|
3137 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3138 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3139 <p> |
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|
3140 The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following: |
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parents:
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|
3141 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3142 <ul> |
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diff
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|
3143 <li><b>"<code>r</code>": </b> read mode (the default);</li> |
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|
3144 <li><b>"<code>w</code>": </b> write mode;</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
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|
3145 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> append mode;</li> |
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parents:
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|
3146 <li><b>"<code>r+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li> |
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|
3147 <li><b>"<code>w+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li> |
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|
3148 <li><b>"<code>a+</code>": </b> append update mode, previous data is preserved, |
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|
3149 writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li> |
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|
3150 </ul><p> |
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parents:
diff
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|
3151 The <code>mode</code> string can also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3152 which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3153 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3154 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3155 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3156 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3157 <p> |
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|
3158 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3159 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3160 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3161 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3162 Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3163 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3164 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3165 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3166 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3167 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3168 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3169 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3170 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3171 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3172 This function is system dependent and is not available |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3173 on all platforms. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3174 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3175 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3176 <p> |
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|
3177 Starts program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns |
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changeset
|
3178 a file handle that you can use to read data from this program |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3179 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default) |
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changeset
|
3180 or to write data to this program |
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parents:
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|
3181 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>). |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3182 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3183 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3184 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3185 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3186 <p> |
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|
3187 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3188 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3189 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3190 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3191 Equivalent to <code>io.input():read(···)</code>. |
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changeset
|
3192 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3193 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3194 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3195 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3196 <p> |
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changeset
|
3197 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3198 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3199 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3200 <p> |
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changeset
|
3201 Returns a handle for a temporary file. |
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diff
changeset
|
3202 This file is opened in update mode |
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|
3203 and it is automatically removed when the program ends. |
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changeset
|
3204 |
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diff
changeset
|
3205 |
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diff
changeset
|
3206 |
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diff
changeset
|
3207 |
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diff
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|
3208 <p> |
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|
3209 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3210 |
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diff
changeset
|
3211 |
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|
3212 <p> |
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|
3213 Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle. |
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|
3214 Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle, |
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|
3215 <code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle, |
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|
3216 or <b>nil</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle. |
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|
3217 |
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diff
changeset
|
3218 |
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diff
changeset
|
3219 |
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diff
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|
3220 |
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diff
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|
3221 <p> |
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|
3222 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3223 |
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diff
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|
3224 |
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|
3225 <p> |
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|
3226 Equivalent to <code>io.output():write(···)</code>. |
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|
3227 |
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diff
changeset
|
3228 |
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diff
changeset
|
3229 |
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diff
changeset
|
3230 |
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|
3231 <p> |
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|
3232 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3233 |
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|
3234 |
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|
3235 <p> |
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|
3236 Closes <code>file</code>. |
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|
3237 Note that files are automatically closed when |
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|
3238 their handles are garbage collected, |
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|
3239 but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen. |
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|
3240 |
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diff
changeset
|
3241 |
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|
3242 <p> |
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|
3243 When closing a file handle created with <a href="#pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen</code></a>, |
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|
3244 <a href="#pdf-file:close"><code>file:close</code></a> returns the same values |
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|
3245 returned by <a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a>. |
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|
3246 |
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diff
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|
3247 |
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diff
changeset
|
3248 |
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diff
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|
3249 |
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|
3250 <p> |
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|
3251 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3252 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3253 |
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|
3254 <p> |
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|
3255 Saves any written data to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3256 |
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diff
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|
3257 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3258 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3259 |
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|
3260 <p> |
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|
3261 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3262 |
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diff
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|
3263 |
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diff
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|
3264 <p> |
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|
3265 Returns an iterator function that, |
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|
3266 each time it is called, |
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|
3267 reads the file according to the given formats. |
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|
3268 When no format is given, |
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|
3269 uses "<code>l</code>" as a default. |
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|
3270 As an example, the construction |
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|
3271 |
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|
3272 <pre> |
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|
3273 for c in file:lines(1) do <em>body</em> end |
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|
3274 </pre><p> |
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|
3275 will iterate over all characters of the file, |
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diff
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|
3276 starting at the current position. |
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diff
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|
3277 Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file |
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|
3278 when the loop ends. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3279 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3280 |
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diff
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|
3281 <p> |
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diff
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|
3282 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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diff
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|
3283 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3284 |
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diff
changeset
|
3285 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3286 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3287 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3288 <p> |
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|
3289 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3290 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3291 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3292 <p> |
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diff
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|
3293 Reads the file <code>file</code>, |
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diff
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|
3294 according to the given formats, which specify what to read. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3295 For each format, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3296 the function returns a string or a number with the characters read, |
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|
3297 or <b>nil</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format. |
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|
3298 (In this latter case, |
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diff
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|
3299 the function does not read subsequent formats.) |
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|
3300 When called without formats, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3301 it uses a default format that reads the next line |
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diff
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|
3302 (see below). |
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diff
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|
3303 |
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diff
changeset
|
3304 |
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diff
changeset
|
3305 <p> |
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diff
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|
3306 The available formats are |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3307 |
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diff
changeset
|
3308 <ul> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3309 |
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diff
changeset
|
3310 <li><b>"<code>n</code>": </b> |
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diff
changeset
|
3311 reads a numeral and returns it as a float or an integer, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3312 following the lexical conventions of Lua. |
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diff
changeset
|
3313 (The numeral may have leading spaces and a sign.) |
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diff
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|
3314 This format always reads the longest input sequence that |
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parents:
diff
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|
3315 is a valid prefix for a number; |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3316 if that prefix does not form a valid number |
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diff
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|
3317 (e.g., an empty string, "<code>0x</code>", or "<code>3.4e-</code>"), |
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diff
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|
3318 it is discarded and the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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diff
changeset
|
3319 </li> |
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diff
changeset
|
3320 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3321 <li><b>"<code>i</code>": </b> |
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diff
changeset
|
3322 reads an integral number and returns it as an integer. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3323 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3324 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3325 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3326 reads the whole file, starting at the current position. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3327 On end of file, it returns the empty string. |
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diff
changeset
|
3328 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3329 |
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diff
changeset
|
3330 <li><b>"<code>l</code>": </b> |
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|
3331 reads the next line skipping the end of line, |
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3332 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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3333 This is the default format. |
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|
3334 </li> |
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|
3335 |
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|
3336 <li><b>"<code>L</code>": </b> |
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3337 reads the next line keeping the end-of-line character (if present), |
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3338 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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3339 </li> |
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|
3340 |
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3341 <li><b><em>number</em>: </b> |
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|
3342 reads a string with up to this number of bytes, |
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|
3343 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3344 If <code>number</code> is zero, |
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3345 it reads nothing and returns an empty string, |
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3346 or <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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|
3347 </li> |
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|
3348 |
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|
3349 </ul><p> |
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|
3350 The formats "<code>l</code>" and "<code>L</code>" should be used only for text files. |
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3351 |
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|
3352 |
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|
3353 |
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|
3354 |
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3355 <p> |
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3356 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence [, offset]])</code></a></h3> |
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3357 |
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|
3358 |
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3359 <p> |
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|
3360 Sets and gets the file position, |
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|
3361 measured from the beginning of the file, |
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|
3362 to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base |
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3363 specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows: |
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|
3364 |
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|
3365 <ul> |
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|
3366 <li><b>"<code>set</code>": </b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li> |
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|
3367 <li><b>"<code>cur</code>": </b> base is current position;</li> |
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|
3368 <li><b>"<code>end</code>": </b> base is end of file;</li> |
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3369 </ul><p> |
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|
3370 In case of success, <code>seek</code> returns the final file position, |
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|
3371 measured in bytes from the beginning of the file. |
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|
3372 If <code>seek</code> fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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3373 plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3374 |
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|
3375 |
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|
3376 <p> |
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|
3377 The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>, |
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|
3378 and for <code>offset</code> is 0. |
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|
3379 Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current |
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|
3380 file position, without changing it; |
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|
3381 the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3382 beginning of the file (and returns 0); |
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|
3383 and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3384 end of the file, and returns its size. |
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|
3385 |
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changeset
|
3386 |
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diff
changeset
|
3387 |
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|
3388 |
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|
3389 <p> |
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|
3390 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3391 |
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changeset
|
3392 |
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|
3393 <p> |
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|
3394 Sets the buffering mode for an output file. |
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|
3395 There are three available modes: |
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|
3396 |
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|
3397 <ul> |
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|
3398 |
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|
3399 <li><b>"<code>no</code>": </b> |
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|
3400 no buffering; the result of any output operation appears immediately. |
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|
3401 </li> |
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|
3402 |
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|
3403 <li><b>"<code>full</code>": </b> |
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|
3404 full buffering; output operation is performed only |
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|
3405 when the buffer is full or when |
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|
3406 you explicitly <code>flush</code> the file (see <a href="#pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush</code></a>). |
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|
3407 </li> |
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|
3408 |
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|
3409 <li><b>"<code>line</code>": </b> |
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|
3410 line buffering; output is buffered until a newline is output |
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|
3411 or there is any input from some special files |
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|
3412 (such as a terminal device). |
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|
3413 </li> |
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|
3414 |
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|
3415 </ul><p> |
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|
3416 For the last two cases, <code>size</code> |
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|
3417 specifies the size of the buffer, in bytes. |
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|
3418 The default is an appropriate size. |
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|
3419 |
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|
3420 |
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changeset
|
3421 |
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|
3422 |
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|
3423 <p> |
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|
3424 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3425 |
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|
3426 |
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|
3427 <p> |
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|
3428 Writes the value of each of its arguments to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3429 The arguments must be strings or numbers. |
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|
3430 |
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|
3431 |
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|
3432 <p> |
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|
3433 In case of success, this function returns <code>file</code>. |
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|
3434 Otherwise it returns <b>nil</b> plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3435 |
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|
3436 |
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|
3437 |
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|
3438 |
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|
3439 |
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|
3440 |
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|
3441 |
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|
3442 <h2>6.9 – <a name="6.9">Operating System Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3443 |
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|
3444 <p> |
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|
3445 This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>. |
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|
3446 |
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|
3447 |
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|
3448 <p> |
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|
3449 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3450 |
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|
3451 |
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|
3452 <p> |
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|
3453 Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time |
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|
3454 used by the program. |
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3455 |
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|
3456 |
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|
3457 |
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|
3458 |
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3459 <p> |
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3460 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3> |
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3461 |
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|
3462 |
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|
3463 <p> |
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3464 Returns a string or a table containing date and time, |
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3465 formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>. |
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3466 |
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|
3467 |
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3468 <p> |
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3469 If the <code>time</code> argument is present, |
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3470 this is the time to be formatted |
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|
3471 (see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value). |
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3472 Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time. |
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3473 |
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|
3474 |
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3475 <p> |
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3476 If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>', |
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3477 then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time. |
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3478 After this optional character, |
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3479 if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>", |
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3480 then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields: |
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3481 <code>year</code> (four digits), <code>month</code> (1–12), <code>day</code> (1–31), |
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3482 <code>hour</code> (0–23), <code>min</code> (0–59), <code>sec</code> (0–61), |
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3483 <code>wday</code> (weekday, Sunday is 1), |
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3484 <code>yday</code> (day of the year), |
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3485 and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean). |
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3486 This last field may be absent |
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3487 if the information is not available. |
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|
3488 |
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|
3489 |
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|
3490 <p> |
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|
3491 If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>", |
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3492 then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string, |
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3493 formatted according to the same rules as the ISO C function <code>strftime</code>. |
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|
3494 |
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|
3495 |
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|
3496 <p> |
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|
3497 When called without arguments, |
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|
3498 <code>date</code> returns a reasonable date and time representation that depends on |
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|
3499 the host system and on the current locale |
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|
3500 (that is, <code>os.date()</code> is equivalent to <code>os.date("%c")</code>). |
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|
3501 |
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|
3502 |
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|
3503 <p> |
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|
3504 On non-POSIX systems, |
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3505 this function may be not thread safe |
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|
3506 because of its reliance on C function <code>gmtime</code> and C function <code>localtime</code>. |
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|
3507 |
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|
3508 |
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|
3509 |
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|
3510 |
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|
3511 <p> |
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|
3512 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3513 |
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|
3514 |
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|
3515 <p> |
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|
3516 Returns the difference, in seconds, |
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|
3517 from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code> |
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|
3518 (where the times are values returned by <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a>). |
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|
3519 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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|
3520 this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>. |
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|
3521 |
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|
3522 |
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|
3523 |
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|
3524 |
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|
3525 <p> |
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|
3526 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3527 |
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|
3528 |
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|
3529 <p> |
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|
3530 This function is equivalent to the ISO C function <code>system</code>. |
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|
3531 It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell. |
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|
3532 Its first result is <b>true</b> |
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3533 if the command terminated successfully, |
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|
3534 or <b>nil</b> otherwise. |
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|
3535 After this first result |
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|
3536 the function returns a string plus a number, |
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|
3537 as follows: |
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|
3538 |
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|
3539 <ul> |
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diff
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|
3540 |
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|
3541 <li><b>"<code>exit</code>": </b> |
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|
3542 the command terminated normally; |
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|
3543 the following number is the exit status of the command. |
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|
3544 </li> |
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|
3545 |
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|
3546 <li><b>"<code>signal</code>": </b> |
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|
3547 the command was terminated by a signal; |
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|
3548 the following number is the signal that terminated the command. |
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|
3549 </li> |
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|
3550 |
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|
3551 </ul> |
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|
3552 |
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|
3553 <p> |
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|
3554 When called without a <code>command</code>, |
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|
3555 <code>os.execute</code> returns a boolean that is true if a shell is available. |
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|
3556 |
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|
3557 |
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|
3558 |
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|
3559 |
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|
3560 <p> |
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|
3561 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code [, close]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3562 |
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|
3563 |
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|
3564 <p> |
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|
3565 Calls the ISO C function <code>exit</code> to terminate the host program. |
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|
3566 If <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>, |
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|
3567 the returned status is <code>EXIT_SUCCESS</code>; |
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|
3568 if <code>code</code> is <b>false</b>, |
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|
3569 the returned status is <code>EXIT_FAILURE</code>; |
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|
3570 if <code>code</code> is a number, |
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|
3571 the returned status is this number. |
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|
3572 The default value for <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>. |
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|
3573 |
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changeset
|
3574 |
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changeset
|
3575 <p> |
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|
3576 If the optional second argument <code>close</code> is true, |
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|
3577 closes the Lua state before exiting. |
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|
3578 |
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diff
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|
3579 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3580 |
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diff
changeset
|
3581 |
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diff
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|
3582 <p> |
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|
3583 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3584 |
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diff
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|
3585 |
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diff
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|
3586 <p> |
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|
3587 Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>, |
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|
3588 or <b>nil</b> if the variable is not defined. |
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|
3589 |
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diff
changeset
|
3590 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3591 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3592 |
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diff
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|
3593 <p> |
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|
3594 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3595 |
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diff
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|
3596 |
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diff
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|
3597 <p> |
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|
3598 Deletes the file (or empty directory, on POSIX systems) |
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|
3599 with the given name. |
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diff
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|
3600 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
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|
3601 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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|
3602 |
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diff
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|
3603 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3604 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3605 |
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|
3606 <p> |
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|
3607 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3608 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3609 |
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|
3610 <p> |
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|
3611 Renames file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>. |
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|
3612 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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diff
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|
3613 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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|
3614 |
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diff
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|
3615 |
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diff
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|
3616 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3617 |
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|
3618 <p> |
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|
3619 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3620 |
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diff
changeset
|
3621 |
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|
3622 <p> |
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|
3623 Sets the current locale of the program. |
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|
3624 <code>locale</code> is a system-dependent string specifying a locale; |
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|
3625 <code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change: |
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|
3626 <code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>, |
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|
3627 <code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>; |
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|
3628 the default category is <code>"all"</code>. |
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|
3629 The function returns the name of the new locale, |
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|
3630 or <b>nil</b> if the request cannot be honored. |
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|
3631 |
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diff
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|
3632 |
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diff
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|
3633 <p> |
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diff
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|
3634 If <code>locale</code> is the empty string, |
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diff
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|
3635 the current locale is set to an implementation-defined native locale. |
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|
3636 If <code>locale</code> is the string "<code>C</code>", |
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|
3637 the current locale is set to the standard C locale. |
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|
3638 |
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diff
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|
3639 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3640 <p> |
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|
3641 When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3642 this function only returns the name of the current locale |
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|
3643 for the given category. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3644 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3645 |
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diff
changeset
|
3646 <p> |
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|
3647 This function may be not thread safe |
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diff
changeset
|
3648 because of its reliance on C function <code>setlocale</code>. |
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|
3649 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3650 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3651 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3652 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3653 <p> |
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diff
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|
3654 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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|
3655 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3656 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3657 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3658 Returns the current time when called without arguments, |
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diff
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|
3659 or a time representing the date and time specified by the given table. |
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|
3660 This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>, |
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|
3661 and may have fields |
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parents:
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|
3662 <code>hour</code> (default is 12), |
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|
3663 <code>min</code> (default is 0), |
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parents:
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|
3664 <code>sec</code> (default is 0), |
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parents:
diff
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|
3665 and <code>isdst</code> (default is <b>nil</b>). |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3666 For a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function. |
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|
3667 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3668 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3669 <p> |
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diff
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|
3670 The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system. |
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diff
changeset
|
3671 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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diff
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|
3672 this number counts the number |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3673 of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch"). |
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parents:
diff
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|
3674 In other systems, the meaning is not specified, |
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diff
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|
3675 and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to |
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|
3676 <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime</code></a>. |
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|
3677 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3678 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3679 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3680 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3681 <p> |
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diff
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|
3682 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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changeset
|
3683 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3684 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3685 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3686 Returns a string with a file name that can |
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diff
changeset
|
3687 be used for a temporary file. |
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diff
changeset
|
3688 The file must be explicitly opened before its use |
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diff
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|
3689 and explicitly removed when no longer needed. |
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diff
changeset
|
3690 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3691 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3692 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3693 On POSIX systems, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3694 this function also creates a file with that name, |
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diff
changeset
|
3695 to avoid security risks. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3696 (Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions |
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diff
changeset
|
3697 in the time between getting the name and creating the file.) |
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diff
changeset
|
3698 You still have to open the file to use it |
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diff
changeset
|
3699 and to remove it (even if you do not use it). |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3700 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3701 |
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|
3702 <p> |
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diff
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|
3703 When possible, |
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diff
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|
3704 you may prefer to use <a href="#pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile</code></a>, |
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|
3705 which automatically removes the file when the program ends. |
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|
3706 |
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diff
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|
3707 |
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diff
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|
3708 |
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|
3709 |
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|
3710 |
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|
3711 |
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|
3712 |
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|
3713 <h2>6.10 – <a name="6.10">The Debug Library</a></h2> |
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3714 |
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|
3715 <p> |
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|
3716 This library provides |
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3717 the functionality of the debug interface (<a href="#4.9">§4.9</a>) to Lua programs. |
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|
3718 You should exert care when using this library. |
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3719 Several of its functions |
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3720 violate basic assumptions about Lua code |
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3721 (e.g., that variables local to a function |
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3722 cannot be accessed from outside; |
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3723 that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code; |
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3724 that Lua programs do not crash) |
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3725 and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code. |
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3726 Moreover, some functions in this library may be slow. |
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|
3727 |
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|
3728 |
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|
3729 <p> |
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|
3730 All functions in this library are provided |
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3731 inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table. |
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3732 All functions that operate over a thread |
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3733 have an optional first argument which is the |
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3734 thread to operate over. |
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3735 The default is always the current thread. |
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|
3736 |
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|
3737 |
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3738 <p> |
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|
3739 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3740 |
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|
3741 |
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|
3742 <p> |
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|
3743 Enters an interactive mode with the user, |
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3744 running each string that the user enters. |
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|
3745 Using simple commands and other debug facilities, |
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|
3746 the user can inspect global and local variables, |
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|
3747 change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on. |
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3748 A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function, |
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|
3749 so that the caller continues its execution. |
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|
3750 |
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|
3751 |
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|
3752 <p> |
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|
3753 Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested |
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3754 within any function and so have no direct access to local variables. |
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|
3755 |
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|
3756 |
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|
3757 |
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|
3758 |
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|
3759 <p> |
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|
3760 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3761 |
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diff
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|
3762 |
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|
3763 <p> |
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|
3764 Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values: |
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|
3765 the current hook function, the current hook mask, |
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|
3766 and the current hook count |
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diff
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|
3767 (as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function). |
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|
3768 |
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diff
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|
3769 |
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diff
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|
3770 |
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|
3771 |
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|
3772 <p> |
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|
3773 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] f [, what])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3774 |
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|
3775 |
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|
3776 <p> |
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|
3777 Returns a table with information about a function. |
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|
3778 You can give the function directly |
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|
3779 or you can give a number as the value of <code>f</code>, |
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|
3780 which means the function running at level <code>f</code> of the call stack |
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|
3781 of the given thread: |
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parents:
diff
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|
3782 level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself); |
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|
3783 level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code> |
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|
3784 (except for tail calls, which do not count on the stack); |
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|
3785 and so on. |
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diff
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|
3786 If <code>f</code> is a number larger than the number of active functions, |
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|
3787 then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3788 |
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diff
changeset
|
3789 |
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diff
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|
3790 <p> |
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|
3791 The returned table can contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>, |
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|
3792 with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in. |
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diff
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|
3793 The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available, |
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|
3794 except the table of valid lines. |
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|
3795 If present, |
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|
3796 the option '<code>f</code>' |
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|
3797 adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself. |
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|
3798 If present, |
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|
3799 the option '<code>L</code>' |
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|
3800 adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of |
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|
3801 valid lines. |
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|
3802 |
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|
3803 |
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|
3804 <p> |
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|
3805 For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns |
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|
3806 a table with a name for the current function, |
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|
3807 if a reasonable name can be found, |
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diff
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|
3808 and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code> |
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|
3809 returns a table with all available information |
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|
3810 about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function. |
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|
3811 |
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|
3812 |
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changeset
|
3813 |
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changeset
|
3814 |
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|
3815 <p> |
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|
3816 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] f, local)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3817 |
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diff
changeset
|
3818 |
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|
3819 <p> |
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|
3820 This function returns the name and the value of the local variable |
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|
3821 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>f</code> of the stack. |
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|
3822 This function accesses not only explicit local variables, |
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|
3823 but also parameters, temporaries, etc. |
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|
3824 |
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changeset
|
3825 |
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|
3826 <p> |
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|
3827 The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on, |
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|
3828 following the order that they are declared in the code, |
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|
3829 counting only the variables that are active |
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|
3830 in the current scope of the function. |
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|
3831 Negative indices refer to vararg parameters; |
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parents:
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|
3832 -1 is the first vararg parameter. |
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|
3833 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no variable with the given index, |
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|
3834 and raises an error when called with a level out of range. |
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|
3835 (You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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|
3836 |
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|
3837 |
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|
3838 <p> |
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|
3839 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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|
3840 represent variables with no known names |
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|
3841 (internal variables such as loop control variables, |
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|
3842 and variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3843 |
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diff
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|
3844 |
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diff
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|
3845 <p> |
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|
3846 The parameter <code>f</code> may also be a function. |
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|
3847 In that case, <code>getlocal</code> returns only the name of function parameters. |
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|
3848 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3849 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3850 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3851 |
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diff
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|
3852 <p> |
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|
3853 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3854 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3855 |
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diff
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|
3856 <p> |
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|
3857 Returns the metatable of the given <code>value</code> |
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|
3858 or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable. |
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|
3859 |
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diff
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|
3860 |
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diff
changeset
|
3861 |
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diff
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|
3862 |
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diff
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|
3863 <p> |
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|
3864 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3865 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3866 |
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diff
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|
3867 <p> |
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|
3868 Returns the registry table (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>). |
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|
3869 |
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parents:
diff
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|
3870 |
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diff
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|
3871 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3872 |
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|
3873 <p> |
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|
3874 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (f, up)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3875 |
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diff
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|
3876 |
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diff
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|
3877 <p> |
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|
3878 This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue |
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|
3879 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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|
3880 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue with the given index. |
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|
3881 |
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diff
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|
3882 |
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diff
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|
3883 <p> |
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|
3884 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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|
3885 represent variables with no known names |
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parents:
diff
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|
3886 (variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3887 |
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diff
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|
3888 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3889 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3890 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3891 <p> |
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|
3892 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getuservalue"><code>debug.getuservalue (u)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3893 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3894 |
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diff
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|
3895 <p> |
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diff
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|
3896 Returns the Lua value associated to <code>u</code>. |
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|
3897 If <code>u</code> is not a userdata, |
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|
3898 returns <b>nil</b>. |
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diff
changeset
|
3899 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3900 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3901 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3902 |
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diff
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|
3903 <p> |
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|
3904 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3905 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3906 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3907 <p> |
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|
3908 Sets the given function as a hook. |
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diff
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|
3909 The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe |
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|
3910 when the hook will be called. |
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parents:
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|
3911 The string mask may have any combination of the following characters, |
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|
3912 with the given meaning: |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3913 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3914 <ul> |
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|
3915 <li><b>'<code>c</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li> |
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|
3916 <li><b>'<code>r</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li> |
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|
3917 <li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li> |
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|
3918 </ul><p> |
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|
3919 Moreover, |
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diff
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|
3920 with a <code>count</code> different from zero, |
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|
3921 the hook is called also after every <code>count</code> instructions. |
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|
3922 |
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diff
changeset
|
3923 |
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changeset
|
3924 <p> |
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changeset
|
3925 When called without arguments, |
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|
3926 <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook. |
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|
3927 |
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diff
changeset
|
3928 |
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changeset
|
3929 <p> |
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|
3930 When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string |
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parents:
diff
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|
3931 describing the event that has triggered its call: |
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|
3932 <code>"call"</code> (or <code>"tail call"</code>), |
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|
3933 <code>"return"</code>, |
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|
3934 <code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>. |
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diff
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|
3935 For line events, |
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diff
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|
3936 the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter. |
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|
3937 Inside a hook, |
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|
3938 you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about |
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|
3939 the running function |
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diff
changeset
|
3940 (level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function, |
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diff
changeset
|
3941 and level 1 is the hook function). |
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parents:
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changeset
|
3942 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3943 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3944 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3945 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3946 <p> |
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|
3947 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3948 |
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diff
changeset
|
3949 |
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3950 <p> |
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3951 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable |
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3952 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack. |
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3953 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no local |
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3954 variable with the given index, |
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3955 and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range. |
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3956 (You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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3957 Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable. |
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|
3958 |
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|
3959 |
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3960 <p> |
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3961 See <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for more information about |
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3962 variable indices and names. |
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|
3963 |
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|
3964 |
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|
3965 |
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|
3966 |
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|
3967 <p> |
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3968 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (value, table)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3969 |
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|
3970 |
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|
3971 <p> |
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3972 Sets the metatable for the given <code>value</code> to the given <code>table</code> |
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3973 (which can be <b>nil</b>). |
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3974 Returns <code>value</code>. |
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|
3975 |
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|
3976 |
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diff
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|
3977 |
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|
3978 |
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|
3979 <p> |
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|
3980 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (f, up, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3981 |
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|
3982 |
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|
3983 <p> |
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|
3984 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue |
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|
3985 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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|
3986 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue |
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|
3987 with the given index. |
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|
3988 Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue. |
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|
3989 |
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diff
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|
3990 |
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diff
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|
3991 |
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|
3992 |
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|
3993 <p> |
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|
3994 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setuservalue"><code>debug.setuservalue (udata, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3995 |
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|
3996 |
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|
3997 <p> |
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|
3998 Sets the given <code>value</code> as |
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|
3999 the Lua value associated to the given <code>udata</code>. |
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|
4000 <code>udata</code> must be a full userdata. |
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|
4001 |
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|
4002 |
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|
4003 <p> |
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|
4004 Returns <code>udata</code>. |
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|
4005 |
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|
4006 |
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|
4007 |
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|
4008 |
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|
4009 <p> |
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|
4010 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
4011 |
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|
4012 |
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|
4013 <p> |
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|
4014 If <code>message</code> is present but is neither a string nor <b>nil</b>, |
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|
4015 this function returns <code>message</code> without further processing. |
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|
4016 Otherwise, |
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|
4017 it returns a string with a traceback of the call stack. |
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|
4018 The optional <code>message</code> string is appended |
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4019 at the beginning of the traceback. |
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|
4020 An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level |
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|
4021 to start the traceback |
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|
4022 (default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>). |
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|
4023 |
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|
4024 |
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|
4025 |
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|
4026 |
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|
4027 <p> |
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|
4028 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvalueid"><code>debug.upvalueid (f, n)</code></a></h3> |
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|
4029 |
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|
4030 |
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|
4031 <p> |
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|
4032 Returns a unique identifier (as a light userdata) |
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|
4033 for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code> |
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|
4034 from the given function. |
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|
4035 |
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|
4036 |
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|
4037 <p> |
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|
4038 These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different |
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|
4039 closures share upvalues. |
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diff
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|
4040 Lua closures that share an upvalue |
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|
4041 (that is, that access a same external local variable) |
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|
4042 will return identical ids for those upvalue indices. |
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|
4043 |
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|
4044 |
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|
4045 |
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|
4046 |
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|
4047 <p> |
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|
4048 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvaluejoin"><code>debug.upvaluejoin (f1, n1, f2, n2)</code></a></h3> |
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|
4049 |
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changeset
|
4050 |
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|
4051 <p> |
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|
4052 Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f1</code> |
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|
4053 refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f2</code>. |
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|
4054 |
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|
4055 |
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changeset
|
4056 |
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changeset
|
4057 |
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changeset
|
4058 |
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changeset
|
4059 |
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changeset
|
4060 |
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|
4061 <h1>7 – <a name="7">Lua Standalone</a></h1> |
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|
4062 |
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|
4063 <p> |
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|
4064 Although Lua has been designed as an extension language, |
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|
4065 to be embedded in a host C program, |
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|
4066 it is also frequently used as a standalone language. |
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|
4067 An interpreter for Lua as a standalone language, |
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|
4068 called simply <code>lua</code>, |
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|
4069 is provided with the standard distribution. |
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|
4070 The standalone interpreter includes |
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|
4071 all standard libraries, including the debug library. |
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|
4072 Its usage is: |
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changeset
|
4073 |
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|
4074 <pre> |
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4075 lua [options] [script [args]] |
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4076 </pre><p> |
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4077 The options are: |
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4078 |
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4079 <ul> |
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4080 <li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>: </b> executes string <em>stat</em>;</li> |
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4081 <li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>: </b> "requires" <em>mod</em>;</li> |
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4082 <li><b><code>-i</code>: </b> enters interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li> |
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4083 <li><b><code>-v</code>: </b> prints version information;</li> |
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4084 <li><b><code>-E</code>: </b> ignores environment variables;</li> |
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4085 <li><b><code>--</code>: </b> stops handling options;</li> |
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4086 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b> executes <code>stdin</code> as a file and stops handling options.</li> |
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4087 </ul><p> |
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4088 After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>. |
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4089 When called without arguments, |
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4090 <code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code> |
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4091 when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal, |
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4092 and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise. |
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4093 |
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4094 |
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4095 <p> |
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4096 When called without option <code>-E</code>, |
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4097 the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT_5_3"><code>LUA_INIT_5_3</code></a> |
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4098 (or <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a> if the versioned name is not defined) |
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4099 before running any argument. |
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4100 If the variable content has the format <code>@<em>filename</em></code>, |
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4101 then <code>lua</code> executes the file. |
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4102 Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself. |
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4103 |
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4104 |
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4105 <p> |
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4106 When called with option <code>-E</code>, |
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4107 besides ignoring <code>LUA_INIT</code>, |
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4108 Lua also ignores |
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4109 the values of <code>LUA_PATH</code> and <code>LUA_CPATH</code>, |
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4110 setting the values of |
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4111 <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> |
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4112 with the default paths defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>. |
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4113 |
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4114 |
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4115 <p> |
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4116 All options are handled in order, except <code>-i</code> and <code>-E</code>. |
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4117 For instance, an invocation like |
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4118 |
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4119 <pre> |
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4120 $ lua -e'a=1' -e 'print(a)' script.lua |
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4121 </pre><p> |
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4122 will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then print the value of <code>a</code>, |
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4123 and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments. |
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4124 (Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.) |
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4125 |
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4126 |
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4127 <p> |
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4128 Before running any code, |
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4129 <code>lua</code> collects all command-line arguments |
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4130 in a global table called <code>arg</code>. |
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4131 The script name goes to index 0, |
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4132 the first argument after the script name goes to index 1, |
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4133 and so on. |
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4134 Any arguments before the script name |
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4135 (that is, the interpreter name plus its options) |
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4136 go to negative indices. |
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4137 For instance, in the call |
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4138 |
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4139 <pre> |
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4140 $ lua -la b.lua t1 t2 |
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4141 </pre><p> |
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4142 the table is like this: |
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4143 |
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4144 <pre> |
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4145 arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la", |
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4146 [0] = "b.lua", |
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4147 [1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" } |
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4148 </pre><p> |
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4149 If there is no script in the call, |
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4150 the interpreter name goes to index 0, |
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4151 followed by the other arguments. |
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4152 For instance, the call |
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4153 |
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4154 <pre> |
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4155 $ lua -e "print(arg[1])" |
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4156 </pre><p> |
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4157 will print "<code>-e</code>". |
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4158 If there is a script, |
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4159 the script is called with parameters |
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4160 <code>arg[1]</code>, ···, <code>arg[#arg]</code>. |
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4161 (Like all chunks in Lua, |
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4162 the script is compiled as a vararg function.) |
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4163 |
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4164 |
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4165 <p> |
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4166 In interactive mode, |
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4167 Lua repeatedly prompts and waits for a line. |
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4168 After reading a line, |
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4169 Lua first try to interpret the line as an expression. |
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4170 If it succeeds, it prints its value. |
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4171 Otherwise, it interprets the line as a statement. |
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4172 If you write an incomplete statement, |
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4173 the interpreter waits for its completion |
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4174 by issuing a different prompt. |
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4175 |
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4176 |
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4177 <p> |
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4178 In case of unprotected errors in the script, |
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4179 the interpreter reports the error to the standard error stream. |
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4180 If the error object is not a string but |
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4181 has a metamethod <code>__to_string</code>, |
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4182 the interpreter calls this metamethod to produce the final message. |
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4183 Otherwise, the interpreter converts the error object to a string |
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4184 and adds a stack traceback to it. |
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4185 |
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4186 |
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4187 <p> |
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4188 When finishing normally, |
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4189 the interpreter closes its main Lua state |
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4190 (see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>). |
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4191 The script can avoid this step by |
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4192 calling <a href="#pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit</code></a> to terminate. |
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4193 |
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4194 |
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|
4195 <p> |
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|
4196 To allow the use of Lua as a |
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|
4197 script interpreter in Unix systems, |
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4198 the standalone interpreter skips |
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4199 the first line of a chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>. |
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4200 Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs |
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4201 by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form, |
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4202 as in |
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|
4203 |
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|
4204 <pre> |
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|
4205 #!/usr/local/bin/lua |
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|
4206 </pre><p> |
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4207 (Of course, |
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4208 the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine. |
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|
4209 If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>, |
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4210 then |
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|
4211 |
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|
4212 <pre> |
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|
4213 #!/usr/bin/env lua |
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4214 </pre><p> |
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4215 is a more portable solution.) |
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4216 |
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4217 |
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4218 |
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4219 <h1>8 – <a name="8">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1> |
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4220 |
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4221 <p> |
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4222 Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program |
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4223 from Lua 5.2 to Lua 5.3. |
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4224 You can avoid some incompatibilities by compiling Lua with |
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4225 appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>). |
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4226 However, |
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4227 all these compatibility options will be removed in the future. |
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4228 |
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4229 |
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4230 <p> |
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4231 Lua versions can always change the C API in ways that |
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4232 do not imply source-code changes in a program, |
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4233 such as the numeric values for constants |
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4234 or the implementation of functions as macros. |
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4235 Therefore, |
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|
4236 you should not assume that binaries are compatible between |
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|
4237 different Lua versions. |
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4238 Always recompile clients of the Lua API when |
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4239 using a new version. |
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|
4240 |
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|
4241 |
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|
4242 <p> |
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|
4243 Similarly, Lua versions can always change the internal representation |
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4244 of precompiled chunks; |
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|
4245 precompiled chunks are not compatible between different Lua versions. |
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|
4246 |
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4247 |
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|
4248 <p> |
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|
4249 The standard paths in the official distribution may |
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|
4250 change between versions. |
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|
4251 |
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|
4252 |
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|
4253 |
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|
4254 <h2>8.1 – <a name="8.1">Changes in the Language</a></h2> |
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4255 <ul> |
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|
4256 |
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|
4257 <li> |
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4258 The main difference between Lua 5.2 and Lua 5.3 is the |
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4259 introduction of an integer subtype for numbers. |
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|
4260 Although this change should not affect "normal" computations, |
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4261 some computations |
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|
4262 (mainly those that involve some kind of overflow) |
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4263 can give different results. |
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|
4264 |
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|
4265 |
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|
4266 <p> |
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|
4267 You can fix these differences by forcing a number to be a float |
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4268 (in Lua 5.2 all numbers were float), |
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|
4269 in particular writing constants with an ending <code>.0</code> |
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|
4270 or using <code>x = x + 0.0</code> to convert a variable. |
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|
4271 (This recommendation is only for a quick fix |
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|
4272 for an occasional incompatibility; |
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|
4273 it is not a general guideline for good programming. |
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|
4274 For good programming, |
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|
4275 use floats where you need floats |
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|
4276 and integers where you need integers.) |
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|
4277 </li> |
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|
4278 |
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|
4279 <li> |
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|
4280 The conversion of a float to a string now adds a <code>.0</code> suffix |
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4281 to the result if it looks like an integer. |
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|
4282 (For instance, the float 2.0 will be printed as <code>2.0</code>, |
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|
4283 not as <code>2</code>.) |
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4284 You should always use an explicit format |
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|
4285 when you need a specific format for numbers. |
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|
4286 |
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|
4287 |
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|
4288 <p> |
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|
4289 (Formally this is not an incompatibility, |
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|
4290 because Lua does not specify how numbers are formatted as strings, |
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4291 but some programs assumed a specific format.) |
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|
4292 </li> |
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|
4293 |
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|
4294 <li> |
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4295 The generational mode for the garbage collector was removed. |
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4296 (It was an experimental feature in Lua 5.2.) |
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4297 </li> |
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|
4298 |
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|
4299 </ul> |
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|
4300 |
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4301 |
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4302 |
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4303 |
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|
4304 <h2>8.2 – <a name="8.2">Changes in the Libraries</a></h2> |
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4305 <ul> |
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|
4306 |
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4307 <li> |
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|
4308 The <code>bit32</code> library has been deprecated. |
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4309 It is easy to require a compatible external library or, |
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4310 better yet, to replace its functions with appropriate bitwise operations. |
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4311 (Keep in mind that <code>bit32</code> operates on 32-bit integers, |
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4312 while the bitwise operators in standard Lua operate on 64-bit integers.) |
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4313 </li> |
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|
4314 |
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4315 <li> |
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4316 The Table library now respects metamethods |
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4317 for setting and getting elements. |
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4318 </li> |
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|
4319 |
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4320 <li> |
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|
4321 The <a href="#pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs</code></a> iterator now respects metamethods and |
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4322 its <code>__ipairs</code> metamethod has been deprecated. |
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4323 </li> |
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4324 |
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4325 <li> |
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4326 Option names in <a href="#pdf-io.read"><code>io.read</code></a> do not have a starting '<code>*</code>' anymore. |
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4327 For compatibility, Lua will continue to ignore this character. |
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4328 </li> |
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4329 |
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4330 <li> |
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4331 The following functions were deprecated in the mathematical library: |
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4332 <code>atan2</code>, <code>cosh</code>, <code>sinh</code>, <code>tanh</code>, <code>pow</code>, |
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4333 <code>frexp</code>, and <code>ldexp</code>. |
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4334 You can replace <code>math.pow(x,y)</code> with <code>x^y</code>; |
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4335 you can replace <code>math.atan2</code> with <code>math.atan</code>, |
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4336 which now accepts one or two parameters; |
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4337 you can replace <code>math.ldexp(x,exp)</code> with <code>x * 2.0^exp</code>. |
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4338 For the other operations, |
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4339 you can either use an external library or |
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4340 implement them in Lua. |
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4341 </li> |
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|
4342 |
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4343 <li> |
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4344 The searcher for C loaders used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> |
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4345 changed the way it handles versioned names. |
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4346 Now, the version should come after the module name |
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4347 (as is usual in most other tools). |
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4348 For compatibility, that searcher still tries the old format |
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4349 if it cannot find an open function according to the new style. |
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4350 (Lua 5.2 already worked that way, |
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4351 but it did not document the change.) |
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|
4352 </li> |
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|
4353 |
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4354 </ul> |
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|
4355 |
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|
4356 |
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|
4357 |
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|
4358 |
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4359 <h2>8.3 – <a name="8.3">Changes in the API</a></h2> |
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|
4360 |
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|
4361 |
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|
4362 <ul> |
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|
4363 |
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|
4364 <li> |
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|
4365 Continuation functions now receive as parameters what they needed |
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4366 to get through <code>lua_getctx</code>, |
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4367 so <code>lua_getctx</code> has been removed. |
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|
4368 Adapt your code accordingly. |
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|
4369 </li> |
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|
4370 |
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|
4371 <li> |
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|
4372 Function <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> has an extra parameter, <code>strip</code>. |
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4373 Use 0 as the value of this parameter to get the old behavior. |
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4374 </li> |
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|
4375 |
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|
4376 <li> |
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|
4377 Functions to inject/project unsigned integers |
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4378 (<code>lua_pushunsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsignedx</code>, |
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4379 <code>luaL_checkunsigned</code>, <code>luaL_optunsigned</code>) |
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4380 were deprecated. |
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|
4381 Use their signed equivalents with a type cast. |
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|
4382 </li> |
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|
4383 |
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|
4384 <li> |
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|
4385 Macros to project non-default integer types |
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|
4386 (<code>luaL_checkint</code>, <code>luaL_optint</code>, <code>luaL_checklong</code>, <code>luaL_optlong</code>) |
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4387 were deprecated. |
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|
4388 Use their equivalent over <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> with a type cast |
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|
4389 (or, when possible, use <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> in your code). |
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|
4390 </li> |
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|
4391 |
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|
4392 </ul> |
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|
4393 |
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|
4394 |
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|
4395 |
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|
4396 |
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|
4397 <h1>9 – <a name="9">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1> |
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|
4398 |
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|
4399 <p> |
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|
4400 Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF. |
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4401 As usual in extended BNF, |
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4402 {A} means 0 or more As, |
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|
4403 and [A] means an optional A. |
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|
4404 (For operator precedences, see <a href="#3.4.8">§3.4.8</a>; |
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4405 for a description of the terminals |
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|
4406 Name, Numeral, |
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|
4407 and LiteralString, see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>.) |
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|
4408 |
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|
4409 |
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|
4410 |
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|
4411 |
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|
4412 <pre> |
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|
4413 |
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4414 chunk ::= block |
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|
4415 |
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4416 block ::= {stat} [retstat] |
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|
4417 |
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4418 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ | |
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4419 varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist | |
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4420 functioncall | |
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|
4421 label | |
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4422 <b>break</b> | |
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4423 <b>goto</b> Name | |
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4424 <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4425 <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4426 <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp | |
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4427 <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> | |
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4428 <b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4429 <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4430 <b>function</b> funcname funcbody | |
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4431 <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody | |
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4432 <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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4433 |
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4434 retstat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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4435 |
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4436 label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’ |
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4437 |
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4438 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
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4439 |
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4440 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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4441 |
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4442 var ::= Name | prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ | prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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4443 |
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4444 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
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4445 |
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4446 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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4447 |
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4448 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Numeral | LiteralString | ‘<b>...</b>’ | functiondef | |
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4449 prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp |
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4450 |
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4451 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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4452 |
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4453 functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args |
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4454 |
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4455 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ | tableconstructor | LiteralString |
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4456 |
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4457 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
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4458 |
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4459 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b> |
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4460 |
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4461 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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4462 |
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4463 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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4464 |
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4465 fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep] |
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4466 |
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4467 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
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4468 |
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4469 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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4470 |
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4471 binop ::= ‘<b>+</b>’ | ‘<b>-</b>’ | ‘<b>*</b>’ | ‘<b>/</b>’ | ‘<b>//</b>’ | ‘<b>^</b>’ | ‘<b>%</b>’ | |
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4472 ‘<b>&</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ | ‘<b>|</b>’ | ‘<b>>></b>’ | ‘<b><<</b>’ | ‘<b>..</b>’ | |
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4473 ‘<b><</b>’ | ‘<b><=</b>’ | ‘<b>></b>’ | ‘<b>>=</b>’ | ‘<b>==</b>’ | ‘<b>~=</b>’ | |
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4474 <b>and</b> | <b>or</b> |
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4475 |
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4476 unop ::= ‘<b>-</b>’ | <b>not</b> | ‘<b>#</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ |
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4477 |
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4478 </pre> |
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4479 |
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4480 <p> |
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4481 |
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4482 |
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4483 |
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4484 |
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4485 |
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4486 |
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4487 |
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4488 |
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4489 <HR> |
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4490 <SMALL CLASS="footer"> |
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4491 Last update: |
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4492 Fri Jan 16 00:58:20 BRST 2015 |
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4493 </SMALL> |
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4494 <!-- |
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4495 Last change: minor edit |
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4496 --> |
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4497 |
391
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4498 </body> |
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4499 </html> |