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annotate website/src/manual.html @ 1649:f7e2df85fc0a
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2 <html> |
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3 <head> |
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4 <title>Luan Reference Manual</title> |
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5 <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> |
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6 <style> |
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7 @import "site.css"; |
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9 p[keywords] { | |
10 font-family: monospace; | |
11 margin-left: 40px; | |
12 max-width: 700px; | |
13 } | |
14 p[keywords] span { | |
15 display: inline-block; | |
16 width: 100px; | |
17 } | |
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18 </style> |
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19 </head> |
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20 <body> |
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21 |
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22 <div small> |
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23 <a href=".">Luan</a> |
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24 / <a href="docs.html">Documentation</a> |
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25 </div> |
372 | 26 |
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27 <h1><a href="manual.html">Luan Reference Manual</a></h1> |
372 | 28 |
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29 <p small> |
372 | 30 Original copyright © 2015 Lua.org, PUC-Rio. |
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31 Freely available under the terms of the |
372 | 32 <a href="http://www.lua.org/license.html">Lua license</a>. |
33 Modified for Luan. | |
34 </p> | |
35 | |
36 <hr/> | |
37 | |
38 <h2>Contents</h2> | |
39 | |
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40 <div contents><a href="#intro">Introduction</a></div> |
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41 |
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42 <div contents> |
373 | 43 <a href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a> |
44 <ul> | |
45 <li><a href="#types">Values and Types</a></li> | |
46 <li><a href="#env">Environments</a></li> | |
47 <li><a href="#error">Error Handling</a></li> | |
48 <li><a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></li> | |
380 | 49 <li><a href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></li> |
50 </ul> | |
51 </div> | |
52 | |
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53 <div contents> |
380 | 54 <a href="#lang">The Language</a> |
55 <ul> | |
56 <li><a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></li> | |
57 <li><a href="#vars">Variables</a></li> | |
389 | 58 <li> |
59 <a href="#stmts">Statements</a> | |
60 <ul> | |
61 <li><a href="#blocks">Blocks</a></li> | |
395 | 62 <li><a href="#chunks">Chunks</a></li> |
63 <li><a href="#assignment">Assignment</a></li> | |
64 <li><a href="#control">Control Structures</a></li> | |
65 <li><a href="#for">For Statement</a></li> | |
1520 | 66 <li><a href="#try">Try Statement</a></li> |
395 | 67 <li><a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></li> |
68 <li><a href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></li> | |
465 | 69 <li><a href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></li> |
395 | 70 </ul> |
71 </li> | |
72 <li> | |
73 <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a> | |
74 <ul> | |
75 <li><a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></li> | |
396 | 76 <li><a href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></li> |
77 <li><a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></li> | |
78 <li><a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></li> | |
79 <li><a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></li> | |
80 <li><a href="#length">The Length Operator</a></li> | |
81 <li><a href="#precedence">Precedence</a></li> | |
82 <li><a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></li> | |
417 | 83 <li><a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></li> |
84 <li><a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></li> | |
389 | 85 </ul> |
86 </li> | |
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87 <li><a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></li> |
373 | 88 </ul> |
89 </div> | |
90 | |
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91 <div contents> |
468 | 92 <a href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a> |
93 <ul> | |
94 <li><a href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></li> | |
470 | 95 <li><a href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></li> |
476 | 96 <li><a href="#package_lib">Modules</a></li> |
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97 <li><a href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></li> |
567 | 98 <li><a href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></li> |
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99 <li><a href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></li> |
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100 <li><a href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></li> |
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101 <li><a href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></li> |
468 | 102 </ul> |
103 </div> | |
104 | |
372 | 105 <hr/> |
106 | |
373 | 107 |
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108 <h2 heading><a name="intro" href="#intro">Introduction</a></h2> |
372 | 109 |
110 <p>Luan is a high level programming language based on <a href="http://www.lua.org">Lua</a>. A great strength of Lua is its simplicity and Luan takes this even further, being even simpler than Lua. The goal is to provide a simple programming language for the casual programmer with as few concepts as possible so that one can quickly learn the language and then easily understand any code written in Luan.</p> | |
111 | |
112 <p>Luan is implemented in Java and is tightly coupled with Java. So it makes a great scripting language for Java programmers.</p> | |
113 | |
114 <p>Unlike Lua which is meant to be embedded, Luan is meant to be a full scripting language. This done not by adding feature to Luan, but rather by providing a complete set of libraries.</p> | |
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115 |
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116 |
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117 <h2 heading><a name="basic" href="#basic">Basic Concepts</a></h2> |
373 | 118 |
119 <p>This section describes the basic concepts of the language.</p> | |
120 | |
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121 <h3 heading><a name="types" href="#types">Values and Types</a></h3> |
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122 |
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123 <p> |
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124 Luan is a <em>dynamically typed language</em>. |
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125 This means that |
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126 variables do not have types; only values do. |
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127 There are no type definitions in the language. |
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128 All values carry their own type. |
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129 |
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130 |
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131 <p> |
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132 All values in Luan are <em>first-class values</em>. |
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133 This means that all values can be stored in variables, |
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134 passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results. |
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135 |
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136 |
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137 <p> |
373 | 138 There are eight basic types in Luan: |
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139 <em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>, |
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140 <em>string</em>, <em>binary</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>java</em>, |
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141 and <em>table</em>. |
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142 <em>Nil</em> is the type of the value <b>nil</b>, |
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143 whose main property is to be different from any other value; |
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144 it usually represents the absence of a useful value. |
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145 <em>Nil</em> is implemented as the Java value <em>null</em>. |
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146 <em>Boolean</em> is the type of the values <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>. |
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147 <em>Boolean</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Boolean</em>. |
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148 <em>Number</em> represents both |
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149 integer numbers and real (floating-point) numbers. |
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150 <em>Number</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>Number</em>. Any Java subclass of <em>Number</em> is allowed and this is invisible to the Luan user. Operations on numbers follow the same rules of |
373 | 151 the underlying Java implementation. |
152 | |
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153 <em>String</em> is implemented as the Java class <em>String</em>. |
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154 <em>Binary</em> is implemented as the Java type <em>byte[]</em>. |
373 | 155 |
156 | |
157 <p> | |
158 Luan can call (and manipulate) functions written in Luan and | |
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159 functions written in Java (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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160 Both are represented by the type <em>function</em>. |
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161 |
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162 |
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163 <p> |
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164 The type <em>java</em> is provided to allow arbitrary Java objects to |
373 | 165 be stored in Luan variables. |
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166 A <em>java</em> value is a Java object that isn't one of the standard Luan types. |
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167 Java values have no predefined operations in Luan, |
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168 except assignment and identity test. |
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169 Java values are useful when Java access is enabled in Luan |
373 | 170 |
171 | |
172 | |
173 <p> | |
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174 The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays, |
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175 that is, arrays that can be indexed not only with numbers, |
373 | 176 but with any Luan value except <b>nil</b>. |
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177 Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>; |
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178 that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>). |
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179 Any key with value <b>nil</b> is not considered part of the table. |
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180 Conversely, any key that is not part of a table has |
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181 an associated value <b>nil</b>. |
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182 |
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183 |
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184 <p> |
373 | 185 Tables are the sole data-structuring mechanism in Luan; |
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186 they can be used to represent ordinary arrays, sequences, |
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187 symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc. |
373 | 188 To represent records, Luan uses the field name as an index. |
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189 The language supports this representation by |
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190 providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>. |
373 | 191 There are several convenient ways to create tables in Luan |
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192 (see <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>). |
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193 |
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194 |
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195 <p> |
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196 We use the term <em>sequence</em> to denote a table where |
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197 the set of all positive numeric keys is equal to {1..<em>n</em>} |
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198 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>, |
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199 which is called the length of the sequence (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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200 |
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201 |
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202 <p> |
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203 Like indices, |
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204 the values of table fields can be of any type. |
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205 In particular, |
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206 because functions are first-class values, |
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207 table fields can contain functions. |
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208 Thus tables can also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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209 |
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210 |
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211 <p> |
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212 The indexing of tables follows |
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213 the definition of raw equality in the language. |
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214 The expressions <code>a[i]</code> and <code>a[j]</code> |
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215 denote the same table element |
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216 if and only if <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> are raw equal |
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217 (that is, equal without metamethods). |
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218 In particular, floats with integral values |
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219 are equal to their respective integers |
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220 (e.g., <code>1.0 == 1</code>). |
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221 |
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222 |
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223 <p> |
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224 Luan values are <em>objects</em>: |
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225 variables do not actually <em>contain</em> values, |
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226 only <em>references</em> to them. |
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227 Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns |
373 | 228 always manipulate references to values; |
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229 these operations do not imply any kind of copy. |
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230 |
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231 |
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232 <p> |
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233 The library function <a href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type</code></a> returns a string describing the type |
478 | 234 of a given value. |
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235 |
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236 |
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237 |
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238 |
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239 |
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240 <h3 heading><a name="env" href="#env">Environments</a></h3> |
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241 |
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242 <p> |
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243 The environment of a chunk starts with only one local variable: <code><a href="#require">require</a></code>. This function is used to load and access libraries and other modules. All other variables must be added to the environment using <a href="http://localhost:8080/manual.html#local_stmt">local declarations</a>. |
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244 |
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245 <p> |
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246 As will be discussed in <a href="#vars">Variables</a> and <a href=#assignment">Assignment</a>, |
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247 any reference to a free name |
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248 (that is, a name not bound to any declaration) <code>var</code> |
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249 can be syntactically translated to <code>_ENV.var</code> if <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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250 |
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251 |
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252 <h3 heading><a name="error" href="#error">Error Handling</a></h3> |
373 | 253 |
254 <p> | |
255 Luan code can explicitly generate an error by calling the | |
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256 <a href="#Luan.error"><code>error</code></a> function. |
373 | 257 If you need to catch errors in Luan, |
1520 | 258 you can use the <a href="#try">Try Statement</code></a>. |
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259 |
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260 |
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261 <p> |
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262 Whenever there is an error, |
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263 an <em>error table</em> |
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264 is propagated with information about the error. |
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265 See <a href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error</code></a>. |
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266 |
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267 |
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268 |
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269 <h3 heading><a name="meta" href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a></h3> |
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270 |
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271 <p> |
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272 Every table in Luan can have a <em>metatable</em>. |
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273 This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Luan table |
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274 that defines the behavior of the original value |
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275 under certain special operations. |
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276 You can change several aspects of the behavior |
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277 of operations over a value by setting specific fields in its metatable. |
373 | 278 For instance, when a table is the operand of an addition, |
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279 Luan checks for a function in the field "<code>__add</code>" of the table's metatable. |
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280 If it finds one, |
373 | 281 Luan calls this function to perform the addition. |
282 | |
283 | |
284 <p> | |
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285 The keys in a metatable are derived from the <em>event</em> names; |
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286 the corresponding values are called <ii>metamethods</em>. |
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287 In the previous example, the event is <code>"add"</code> |
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288 and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition. |
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289 |
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290 |
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291 <p> |
373 | 292 You can query the metatable of any table |
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293 using the <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a> function. |
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294 |
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295 |
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296 <p> |
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297 You can replace the metatable of tables |
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298 using the <a href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>set_metatable</code></a> function. |
373 | 299 |
300 | |
301 <p> | |
302 A metatable controls how a table behaves in | |
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303 arithmetic operations, bitwise operations, |
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304 order comparisons, concatenation, length operation, calls, and indexing. |
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305 |
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306 |
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307 <p> |
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308 A detailed list of events controlled by metatables is given next. |
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309 Each operation is identified by its corresponding event name. |
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310 The key for each event is a string with its name prefixed by |
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311 two underscores, '<code>__</code>'; |
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312 for instance, the key for operation "add" is the |
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313 string "<code>__add</code>". |
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314 Note that queries for metamethods are always raw; |
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315 the access to a metamethod does not invoke other metamethods. |
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316 You can emulate how Luan queries a metamethod for an object <code>obj</code> |
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317 with the following code: |
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318 |
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319 <pre> |
373 | 320 raw_get(get_metatable(obj) or {}, "__" .. event_name) |
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321 </pre> |
373 | 322 |
323 <p> | |
324 Here are the events: | |
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325 |
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326 <ul> |
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327 |
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328 <li><p><b>"add": </b> |
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329 the <code>+</code> operation. |
373 | 330 |
331 If any operand for an addition is a table, | |
332 Luan will try to call a metamethod. | |
333 First, Luan will check the first operand (even if it is valid). | |
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334 If that operand does not define a metamethod for the "<code>__add</code>" event, |
373 | 335 then Luan will check the second operand. |
336 If Luan can find a metamethod, | |
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337 it calls the metamethod with the two operands as arguments, |
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338 and the result of the call |
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339 (adjusted to one value) |
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340 is the result of the operation. |
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341 Otherwise, |
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342 it raises an error. |
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343 </li> |
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344 |
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345 <li><p><b>"sub": </b> |
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346 the <code>-</code> operation. |
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347 |
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348 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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349 </li> |
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350 |
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351 <li><p><b>"mul": </b> |
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352 the <code>*</code> operation. |
371
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353 |
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354 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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355 </li> |
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356 |
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357 <li><p><b>"div": </b> |
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358 the <code>/</code> operation. |
371
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359 |
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360 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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361 </li> |
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362 |
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363 <li><p><b>"mod": </b> |
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364 the <code>%</code> operation. |
371
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365 |
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366 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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367 </li> |
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368 |
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369 <li><p><b>"pow": </b> |
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370 the <code>^</code> (exponentiation) operation. |
371
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371 |
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372 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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373 </li> |
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374 |
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375 <li><p><b>"unm": </b> |
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376 the <code>-</code> (unary minus) operation. |
371
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377 |
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378 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. |
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379 </li> |
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380 |
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381 <li><p><b>"concat": </b> |
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382 the <code>..</code> (concatenation) operation. |
373 | 383 |
384 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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385 </li> |
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386 |
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387 <li><p><b>"len": </b> |
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388 the <code>#</code> (length) operation. |
373 | 389 |
371
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390 If there is a metamethod, |
373 | 391 Luan calls it with the object as argument, |
371
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392 and the result of the call |
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393 (always adjusted to one value) |
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394 is the result of the operation. |
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395 If there is no metamethod but the object is a table, |
464
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396 then Luan uses the table length operation (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
373 | 397 Otherwise, Luan raises an error. |
371
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398 </li> |
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399 |
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400 <li><p><b>"eq": </b> |
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401 the <code>==</code> (equal) operation. |
371
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402 |
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403 Behavior similar to the "add" operation, |
373 | 404 except that Luan will try a metamethod only when the values |
405 being compared are both tables | |
371
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406 and they are not primitively equal. |
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407 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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408 </li> |
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409 |
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410 <li><p><b>"lt": </b> |
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411 the <code><</code> (less than) operation. |
373 | 412 |
413 Behavior similar to the "add" operation. | |
371
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414 The result of the call is always converted to a boolean. |
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415 </li> |
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416 |
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417 <li><p><b>"le": </b> |
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418 the <code><=</code> (less equal) operation. |
371
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419 |
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420 Unlike other operations, |
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421 The less-equal operation can use two different events. |
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422 First, Luan looks for the "<code>__le</code>" metamethod in both operands, |
371
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423 like in the "lt" operation. |
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424 If it cannot find such a metamethod, |
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425 then it will try the "<code>__lt</code>" event, |
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426 assuming that <code>a <= b</code> is equivalent to <code>not (b < a)</code>. |
371
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427 As with the other comparison operators, |
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428 the result is always a boolean. |
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429 </li> |
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430 |
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431 <li><p><b>"index": </b> |
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432 The indexing access <code>table[key]</code>. |
373 | 433 |
434 This event happens | |
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435 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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436 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
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437 |
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438 |
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439 <p> |
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440 Despite the name, |
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441 the metamethod for this event can be any type. |
371
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442 If it is a function, |
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443 it is called with <code>table</code> and <code>key</code> as arguments. |
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444 Otherwise |
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445 the final result is the result of indexing this metamethod object with <code>key</code>. |
371
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446 (This indexing is regular, not raw, |
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447 and therefore can trigger another metamethod if the metamethod object is a table.) |
371
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448 </li> |
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449 |
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450 <li><p><b>"new_index": </b> |
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451 The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>. |
371
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452 |
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453 Like the index event, |
373 | 454 this event happens when |
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455 when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>. |
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456 The metamethod is looked up in <code>table</code>. |
371
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457 |
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458 |
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459 <p> |
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460 Like with indexing, |
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461 the metamethod for this event can be either a function or a table. |
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462 If it is a function, |
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463 it is called with <code>table</code>, <code>key</code>, and <code>value</code> as arguments. |
371
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464 If it is a table, |
373 | 465 Luan does an indexing assignment to this table with the same key and value. |
371
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466 (This assignment is regular, not raw, |
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467 and therefore can trigger another metamethod.) |
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468 |
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469 |
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470 <p> |
428
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471 Whenever there is a "new_index" metamethod, |
373 | 472 Luan does not perform the primitive assignment. |
371
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473 (If necessary, |
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474 the metamethod itself can call <a href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>raw_set</code></a> |
371
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475 to do the assignment.) |
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476 </li> |
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477 |
1272 | 478 <li><p><b>"gc":</b> |
479 This is when a table is garbage collected. When the table's <a href="https://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#finalize()">finalize</a> method is called by the Java garbage collector, if there is a "<code>__gc</code>" metamethod then it is called with the table as a parameter. | |
480 | |
481 </li> | |
482 | |
371
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483 </ul> |
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484 |
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485 |
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486 |
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487 |
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488 <h3 heading><a name="gc" href="#gc">Garbage Collection</a></h3> |
380 | 489 |
490 <p> | |
491 Luan uses Java's garbage collection. | |
492 | |
493 | |
494 | |
495 | |
496 | |
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497 <h2 heading><a name="lang" href="#lang">The Language</a></h2> |
380 | 498 |
499 <p> | |
500 This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Luan. | |
371
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501 In other words, |
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502 this section describes |
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503 which tokens are valid, |
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504 how they can be combined, |
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505 and what their combinations mean. |
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506 |
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507 |
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508 <p> |
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509 Language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation, |
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510 in which |
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511 {<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and |
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512 [<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>. |
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513 Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal, |
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514 keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>, |
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515 and other terminal symbols are shown like ‘<b>=</b>’. |
380 | 516 The complete syntax of Luan can be found in <a href="#9">§9</a> |
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517 at the end of this manual. |
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518 |
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519 |
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520 |
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521 <h3 heading><a name="lex" href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a></h3> |
380 | 522 |
523 <p> | |
524 Luan ignores spaces and comments | |
371
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525 between lexical elements (tokens), |
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526 except as delimiters between names and keywords. |
685 | 527 Luan considers the end of a line to be the end of a statement. This catches errors and encourages readability. If you want to continue a statement on another line, you can use a backslash followed by a newline which will be treated as white space. |
562
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528 |
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529 <p> |
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530 <em>Names</em> |
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531 (also called <em>identifiers</em>) |
380 | 532 in Luan can be any string of letters, |
371
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533 digits, and underscores, |
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534 not beginning with a digit. |
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535 Identifiers are used to name variables, table fields, and labels. |
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536 |
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537 |
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538 <p> |
562
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539 The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved |
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540 and cannot be used as names: |
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541 |
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542 |
1645 | 543 <p keywords> |
544 <span>and</span> | |
545 <span>break</span> | |
546 <span>catch</span> | |
547 <span>continue</span> | |
548 <span>do</span> | |
549 <span>else</span> | |
550 <span>elseif</span> | |
551 <span>end_do</span> | |
552 <span>end_for</span> | |
553 <span>end_function</span> | |
554 <span>end_if</span> | |
555 <span>end_try</span> | |
556 <span>end_while</span> | |
557 <span>false</span> | |
558 <span>finally</span> | |
559 <span>for</span> | |
560 <span>function</span> | |
561 <span>if</span> | |
562 <span>in</span> | |
563 <span>local</span> | |
564 <span>nil</span> | |
565 <span>not</span> | |
566 <span>or</span> | |
567 <span>repeat</span> | |
568 <span>return</span> | |
569 <span>then</span> | |
570 <span>true</span> | |
571 <span>try</span> | |
572 <span>until</span> | |
573 <span>while</span> | |
574 </p> | |
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575 |
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576 <p> |
380 | 577 Luan is a case-sensitive language: |
562
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578 <code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code> |
371
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579 are two different, valid names. |
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580 |
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581 |
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582 <p> |
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583 The following strings denote other tokens: |
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584 |
562
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585 <pre> |
371
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586 + - * / % ^ # |
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587 & ~ | << >> // |
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588 == ~= <= >= < > = |
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589 ( ) { } [ ] :: |
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590 ; : , . .. ... |
562
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591 </pre> |
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592 |
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593 <p> |
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594 <em>Literal strings</em> |
371
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595 can be delimited by matching single or double quotes, |
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596 and can contain the following C-like escape sequences: |
562
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597 '<code>\a</code>' (bell), |
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598 '<code>\b</code>' (backspace), |
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599 '<code>\f</code>' (form feed), |
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600 '<code>\n</code>' (newline), |
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601 '<code>\r</code>' (carriage return), |
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602 '<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab), |
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603 '<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab), |
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604 '<code>\\</code>' (backslash), |
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605 '<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]), |
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606 and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]). |
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607 A backslash followed by a real newline |
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608 results in a newline in the string. |
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609 The escape sequence '<code>\z</code>' skips the following span |
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610 of white-space characters, |
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611 including line breaks; |
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612 it is particularly useful to break and indent a long literal string |
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613 into multiple lines without adding the newlines and spaces |
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614 into the string contents. |
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615 |
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616 |
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617 <p> |
380 | 618 Luan can specify any character in a literal string by its numerical value. |
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619 This can be done |
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620 with the escape sequence <code>\x<em>XX</em></code>, |
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621 where <em>XX</em> is a sequence of exactly two hexadecimal digits, |
793 | 622 or with the escape sequence <code>\u<em>XXXX</em></code>, |
623 where <em>XXXX</em> is a sequence of exactly four hexadecimal digits, | |
562
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624 or with the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>, |
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625 where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits. |
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626 (Note that if a decimal escape sequence is to be followed by a digit, |
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627 it must be expressed using exactly three digits.) |
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628 |
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629 |
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630 <p> |
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631 Literal strings can also be defined using a long format |
562
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632 enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>. |
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633 We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening |
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634 square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another |
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635 opening square bracket. |
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636 So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>, |
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637 an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>, |
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638 and so on. |
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639 A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly; |
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640 for instance, |
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641 a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>. |
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642 A <em>long literal</em> starts with an opening long bracket of any level and |
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643 ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level. |
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644 It can contain any text except a closing bracket of the same level. |
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645 Literals in this bracketed form can run for several lines, |
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646 do not interpret any escape sequences, |
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647 and ignore long brackets of any other level. |
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648 Any kind of end-of-line sequence |
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649 (carriage return, newline, carriage return followed by newline, |
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650 or newline followed by carriage return) |
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651 is converted to a simple newline. |
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652 |
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653 |
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654 <p> |
380 | 655 Any character in a literal string not |
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656 explicitly affected by the previous rules represents itself. |
380 | 657 However, Luan opens files for parsing in text mode, |
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658 and the system file functions may have problems with |
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659 some control characters. |
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660 So, it is safer to represent |
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661 non-text data as a quoted literal with |
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662 explicit escape sequences for non-text characters. |
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663 |
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664 |
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665 <p> |
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666 For convenience, |
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667 when the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline, |
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668 the newline is not included in the string. |
380 | 669 As an example |
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670 the five literal strings below denote the same string: |
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671 |
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672 <pre> |
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673 a = 'alo\n123"' |
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674 a = "alo\n123\"" |
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675 a = '\97lo\10\04923"' |
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676 a = [[alo |
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677 123"]] |
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678 a = [==[ |
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679 alo |
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680 123"]==] |
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681 </pre> |
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682 |
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683 <p> |
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684 A <em>numerical constant</em> (or <em>numeral</em>) |
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685 can be written with an optional fractional part |
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686 and an optional decimal exponent, |
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687 marked by a letter '<code>e</code>' or '<code>E</code>'. |
380 | 688 Luan also accepts hexadecimal constants, |
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689 which start with <code>0x</code> or <code>0X</code>. |
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690 Hexadecimal constants also accept an optional fractional part |
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691 plus an optional binary exponent, |
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692 marked by a letter '<code>p</code>' or '<code>P</code>'. |
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693 A numeric constant with a fractional dot or an exponent |
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694 denotes a float; |
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695 otherwise it denotes an integer. |
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696 Examples of valid integer constants are |
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697 |
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698 <pre> |
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699 3 345 0xff 0xBEBADA |
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700 </pre> |
382 | 701 |
702 <p> | |
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703 Examples of valid float constants are |
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704 |
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705 <pre> |
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706 3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 34e1 |
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707 0x0.1E 0xA23p-4 0X1.921FB54442D18P+1 |
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708 </pre> |
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709 |
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710 <p> |
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711 A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>) |
371
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712 anywhere outside a string. |
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713 If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket, |
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714 the comment is a <em>short comment</em>, |
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715 which runs until the end of the line. |
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716 Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>, |
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717 which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket. |
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718 Long comments are frequently used to disable code temporarily. |
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719 |
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720 |
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721 |
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722 |
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723 |
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724 <h3 heading><a name="vars" href="#vars">Variables</a></h3> |
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725 |
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726 <p> |
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727 Variables are places that store values. |
380 | 728 There are three kinds of variables in Luan: |
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729 global variables, local variables, and table fields. |
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730 |
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731 <p> |
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732 A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable |
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733 (or a function's formal parameter, |
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734 which is a particular kind of local variable): |
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735 |
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736 <pre> |
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737 var ::= Name |
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738 </pre> |
382 | 739 |
740 <p> | |
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741 Name denotes identifiers, as defined in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>. |
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742 |
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743 <p> |
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744 Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>: |
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745 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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746 defined inside their scope (see <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>). |
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747 |
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748 |
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749 <p> |
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750 Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>. |
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751 |
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752 <p> |
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753 Square brackets are used to index a table: |
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754 |
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755 <pre> |
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756 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ |
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757 </pre> |
382 | 758 |
759 <p> | |
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760 The meaning of accesses to table fields can be changed via metatables. |
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761 An access to an indexed variable <code>t[i]</code> is equivalent to |
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762 a call <code>gettable_event(t,i)</code>. |
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763 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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764 <code>gettable_event</code> function. |
380 | 765 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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766 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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767 |
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768 |
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769 <p> |
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770 The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for |
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771 <code>var["Name"]</code>: |
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772 |
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773 <pre> |
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774 var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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775 </pre> |
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776 |
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777 <p> |
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778 Global variables are not available by default. To enable global variable, you must define <code>_ENV</code> as a local variable whose value is a table. If <code>_ENV</code> is not defined, then an unrecognized variable name will produce a compile error. If <code>_ENV</code> is defined then an access to an unrecognized variable name will be consider a global variable. So then an acces to global variable <code>x</code> |
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779 is equivalent to <code>_ENV.x</code>. |
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780 Due to the way that chunks are compiled, |
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781 <code>_ENV</code> is never a global name (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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782 |
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783 |
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784 |
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785 |
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786 |
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787 <h3 heading><a name="stmts" href="#stmts">Statements</a></h3> |
389 | 788 |
789 <p> | |
790 Luan supports an almost conventional set of statements, | |
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791 similar to those in Pascal or C. |
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792 This set includes |
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793 assignments, control structures, function calls, |
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794 and variable declarations. |
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795 |
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796 |
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797 |
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798 <h4 heading><a name="blocks" href="#blocks">Blocks</a></h4> |
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799 |
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800 <p> |
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801 A block is a list of statements, |
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802 which are executed sequentially: |
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803 |
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804 <pre> |
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805 block ::= {stat} |
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806 </pre> |
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807 |
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808 <p> |
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809 Luan has <em>empty statements</em> |
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810 that allow you to separate statements with semicolons, |
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811 start a block with a semicolon |
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812 or write two semicolons in sequence: |
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813 |
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814 <pre> |
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815 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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816 </pre> |
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817 |
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818 <p> |
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819 A block can be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement: |
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820 |
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821 <pre> |
1092 | 822 stat ::= <b>do</b> block end_do |
823 end_do ::= <b>end_do</b> | <b>end</b> | |
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824 </pre> |
389 | 825 |
826 <p> | |
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827 Explicit blocks are useful |
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828 to control the scope of variable declarations. |
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829 Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to |
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830 add a <b>return</b> statement in the middle |
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831 of another block (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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832 |
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833 |
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834 |
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835 |
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836 |
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837 <h4 heading><a name="chunks" href="#chunks">Chunks</a></h4> |
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838 |
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839 <p> |
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840 The unit of compilation of Luan is called a <em>chunk</em>. |
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841 Syntactically, |
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842 a chunk is simply a block: |
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843 |
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844 <pre> |
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845 chunk ::= block |
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846 </pre> |
395 | 847 |
848 <p> | |
849 Luan handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function | |
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850 with a variable number of arguments |
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851 (see <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>). |
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852 As such, chunks can define local variables, |
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853 receive arguments, and return values. |
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854 |
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855 |
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856 <p> |
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857 A chunk can be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program. |
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858 To execute a chunk, |
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859 Luan first <em>loads</em> it, |
395 | 860 compiling the chunk's code, |
861 and then Luan executes the compiled code. | |
862 | |
863 | |
864 | |
865 | |
866 | |
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867 <h4 heading><a name="assignment" href="#assignment">Assignment</a></h4> |
395 | 868 |
869 <p> | |
870 Luan allows multiple assignments. | |
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871 Therefore, the syntax for assignment |
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872 defines a list of variables on the left side |
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873 and a list of expressions on the right side. |
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874 The elements in both lists are separated by commas: |
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875 |
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876 <pre> |
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877 stat ::= varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist |
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878 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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879 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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880 </pre> |
395 | 881 |
882 <p> | |
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883 Expressions are discussed in <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>. |
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884 |
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885 |
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886 <p> |
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887 Before the assignment, |
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888 the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of |
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889 the list of variables. |
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890 If there are more values than needed, |
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891 the excess values are thrown away. |
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892 If there are fewer values than needed, |
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893 the list is extended with as many <b>nil</b>'s as needed. |
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894 If the list of expressions ends with a function call, |
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895 then all values returned by that call enter the list of values, |
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896 before the adjustment |
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897 (except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#expressions">Expressions</a>). |
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898 |
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899 |
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900 <p> |
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901 The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions |
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902 and only then the assignments are performed. |
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903 Thus the code |
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904 |
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905 <pre> |
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906 i = 3 |
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907 i, a[i] = i+1, 20 |
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908 </pre> |
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909 |
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910 <p> |
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911 sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code> |
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912 because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3) |
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913 before it is assigned 4. |
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914 Similarly, the line |
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915 |
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916 <pre> |
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917 x, y = y, x |
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918 </pre> |
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919 |
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920 <p> |
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921 exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>, |
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922 and |
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923 |
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924 <pre> |
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925 x, y, z = y, z, x |
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926 </pre> |
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927 |
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928 <p> |
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929 cyclically permutes the values of <code>x</code>, <code>y</code>, and <code>z</code>. |
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930 |
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931 |
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932 <p> |
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933 The meaning of assignments to global variables |
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934 and table fields can be changed via metatables. |
562
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935 An assignment to an indexed variable <code>t[i] = val</code> is equivalent to |
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936 <code>settable_event(t,i,val)</code>. |
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937 (See <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a> for a complete description of the |
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938 <code>settable_event</code> function. |
395 | 939 This function is not defined or callable in Luan. |
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940 We use it here only for explanatory purposes.) |
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941 |
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942 |
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943 <p> |
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944 An assignment to a global name <code>x = val</code> |
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945 is equivalent to the assignment |
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946 <code>_ENV.x = val</code> (see <a href="#env">Environments</a>). |
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947 Global names are only available when <code>_ENV</code> is defined. |
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948 |
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949 |
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950 |
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951 <h4 heading><a name="control" href="#control">Control Structures</a></h4> |
395 | 952 |
953 <p> | |
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954 The control structures |
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955 <b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and |
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956 familiar syntax: |
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957 |
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958 <pre> |
1092 | 959 stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_while |
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960 stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
1092 | 961 stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] end_if |
962 end_while ::= <b>end_while</b> | <b>end</b> | |
963 end_if ::= <b>end_if</b> | <b>end</b> | |
562
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964 </pre> |
395 | 965 |
966 <p> | |
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967 Luan also has a <b>for</b> statement (see <a href="#for">For Statement</a>). |
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968 |
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969 |
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970 <p> |
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971 The condition expression of a |
395 | 972 control structure must be a boolean. |
973 Any other value type will produce an error. | |
974 This helps catch errors and makes code more readable. | |
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975 |
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976 |
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977 <p> |
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978 In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop, |
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979 the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword, |
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980 but only after the condition. |
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981 So, the condition can refer to local variables |
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982 declared inside the loop block. |
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983 |
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984 |
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985 <p> |
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986 The <b>break</b> statement terminates the execution of a |
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987 <b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop, |
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988 skipping to the next statement after the loop: |
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989 |
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990 <pre> |
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991 stat ::= <b>break</b> |
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992 </pre> |
395 | 993 |
994 <p> | |
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995 A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop. |
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996 |
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997 |
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998 <p> |
1645 | 999 The <b>continue</b> statement jumps to the beginning of a |
1000 <b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop for next iteration, | |
1001 skipping the execution of statements inside the body of loop for the current iteration: | |
1002 | |
1003 <pre> | |
1004 stat ::= <b>continue</b> | |
1005 </pre> | |
1006 | |
1007 | |
1008 <p> | |
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1009 The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values |
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1010 from a function or a chunk |
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1011 (which is an anonymous function). |
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1012 |
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1013 Functions can return more than one value, |
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1014 so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is |
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1015 |
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1016 <pre> |
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1017 stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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1018 </pre> |
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1019 |
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1020 |
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1021 |
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1022 |
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1023 <h4 heading><a name="for" href="#for">For Statement</a></h4> |
395 | 1024 |
1025 <p> | |
1026 The <b>for</b> statement works over functions, | |
562
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1027 called <em>iterators</em>. |
395 | 1028 On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value, |
1029 stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>. | |
1030 The <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax: | |
1031 | |
562
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1032 <pre> |
1092 | 1033 stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> exp <b>do</b> block end_for |
395 | 1034 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
1092 | 1035 end_for ::= <b>end_for</b> | <b>end</b> |
562
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1036 </pre> |
395 | 1037 |
1038 <p> | |
1039 A <b>for</b> statement like | |
1040 | |
562
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1041 <pre> |
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1042 for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>exp</em> do <em>block</em> end |
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1043 </pre> |
395 | 1044 |
1045 <p> | |
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1046 is equivalent to the code: |
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1047 |
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1048 <pre> |
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1049 do |
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1050 local <em>f</em> = <em>exp</em> |
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1051 while true do |
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1052 local <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> = <em>f</em>() |
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1053 if <em>var_1</em> == nil then break end |
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1054 <em>block</em> |
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1055 end |
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1056 end |
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1057 </pre> |
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1058 |
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1059 <p> |
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1060 Note the following: |
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1061 |
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1062 <ul> |
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1063 |
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1064 <li> |
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1065 <code><em>exp</em></code> is evaluated only once. |
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1066 Its result is an <em>iterator</em> function. |
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1067 </li> |
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1068 |
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1069 <li> |
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1070 <code><em>f</em></code> is an invisible variable. |
395 | 1071 The name is here for explanatory purposes only. |
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1072 </li> |
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1073 |
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1074 <li> |
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1075 You can use <b>break</b> to exit a <b>for</b> loop. |
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1076 </li> |
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1077 |
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1078 <li> |
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1079 The loop variables <code><em>var_i</em></code> are local to the loop; |
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1080 you cannot use their values after the <b>for</b> ends. |
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1081 If you need these values, |
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1082 then assign them to other variables before breaking or exiting the loop. |
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1083 </li> |
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1084 |
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1085 </ul> |
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1086 |
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1087 |
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1088 |
1520 | 1089 <h4 heading><a name="try" href="#for">Try Statement</a></h4> |
1090 | |
1091 <p>The <b>try</b> statement has the same semantics as in Java.</p> | |
1092 | |
1093 <pre> | |
1094 stat ::= <b>try</b> block [<b>catch</b> Name block] [<b>finally</b> block] end_try | |
1095 end_try ::= <b>end_try</b> | <b>end</b> | |
1096 </pre> | |
1097 | |
1098 | |
1099 | |
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1100 |
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1101 <h4 heading><a name="fn_stmt" href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a></h4> |
395 | 1102 |
1103 <p> | |
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1104 To allow possible side-effects, |
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1105 function calls can be executed as statements: |
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1106 |
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1107 <pre> |
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1108 stat ::= functioncall |
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1109 </pre> |
395 | 1110 |
1111 <p> | |
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1112 In this case, all returned values are thrown away. |
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1113 Function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>. |
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1114 |
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1115 |
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1116 |
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1117 <h4 heading><a name="local_stmt" href="#local_stmt">Local Declarations</a></h4> |
395 | 1118 |
1119 <p> | |
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1120 Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block. |
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1121 The declaration can include an initial assignment: |
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1122 |
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1123 <pre> |
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1124 stat ::= <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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1125 </pre> |
395 | 1126 |
1127 <p> | |
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1128 If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics |
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1129 of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#assignment">Assignment</a>). |
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1130 Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>. |
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1131 |
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1132 |
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1133 <p> |
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1134 A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#chunks">Chunks</a>), |
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1135 and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block. |
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1136 |
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1137 |
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1138 <p> |
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1139 The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a>. |
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1140 |
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1141 |
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1142 <h4 heading><a name="template_stmt" href="#template_stmt">Template Statements</a></h4> |
465 | 1143 |
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1144 <p>Template statements provide the full equivalent of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaServer_Pages">JSP</a> but in a general way. Template statements write to standard output. For example:</p> |
465 | 1145 |
1325
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1146 <pre> |
465 | 1147 local name = "Bob" |
1148 %> | |
469 | 1149 Hello <%= name %>! |
1150 Bye <%= name %>. | |
465 | 1151 <% |
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1152 </pre> |
465 | 1153 |
1154 <p>is equivalent to the code:</p> | |
1155 | |
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1156 <pre> |
465 | 1157 local name = "Bob" |
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1158 require("luan:Io.luan").stdout.write( "Hello ", name , "!\nBye ", name , ".\n" ) |
1325
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1159 </pre> |
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1160 |
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1161 |
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1162 |
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1163 <h3 heading><a name="expressions" href="#expressions">Expressions</a></h3> |
395 | 1164 |
1165 <p> | |
1166 The basic expressions in Luan are the following: | |
1167 | |
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1168 <pre> |
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1169 exp ::= prefixexp |
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1170 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> |
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1171 exp ::= Numeral |
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1172 exp ::= LiteralString |
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1173 exp ::= functiondef |
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1174 exp ::= tableconstructor |
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1175 exp ::= ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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1176 exp ::= exp binop exp |
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1177 exp ::= unop exp |
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1178 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1179 </pre> |
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1180 |
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1181 <p> |
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1182 Numerals and literal strings are explained in <a href="#lex">Lexical Conventions</a>; |
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1183 variables are explained in <a href="#vars">Variables</a>; |
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1184 function definitions are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>; |
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1185 function calls are explained in <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>; |
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1186 table constructors are explained in <a href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a>. |
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1187 Vararg expressions, |
562
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1188 denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used when |
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1189 directly inside a vararg function; |
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1190 they are explained in <a href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a>. |
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1191 |
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1192 |
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1193 <p> |
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1194 Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1195 relational operators (see <a href="#relational">Relational Operators</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1196 and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a>). |
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1197 Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a>), |
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1198 the unary logical <b>not</b> (see <a href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a>), |
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1199 and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#length">The Length Operator</a>). |
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1200 |
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1201 |
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1202 <p> |
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1203 Both function calls and vararg expressions can result in multiple values. |
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1204 If a function call is used as a statement (see <a href="#fn_stmt">Function Calls as Statements</a>), |
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1205 then its return list is adjusted to zero elements, |
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1206 thus discarding all returned values. |
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1207 If an expression is used as the last (or the only) element |
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1208 of a list of expressions, |
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1209 then no adjustment is made |
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1210 (unless the expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1211 In all other contexts, |
395 | 1212 Luan adjusts the result list to one element, |
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1213 either discarding all values except the first one |
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1214 or adding a single <b>nil</b> if there are no values. |
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1215 |
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1216 |
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1217 <p> |
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1218 Here are some examples: |
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1219 |
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1220 <pre> |
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1221 f() -- adjusted to 0 results |
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1222 g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1223 g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f() |
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1224 a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil) |
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1225 a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg parameter, b gets |
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1226 -- the second (both a and b can get nil if there |
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1227 -- is no corresponding vararg parameter) |
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1228 |
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1229 a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results |
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1230 a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results |
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1231 return f() -- returns all results from f() |
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1232 return ... -- returns all received vararg parameters |
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1233 return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f() |
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1234 {f()} -- creates a list with all results from f() |
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1235 {...} -- creates a list with all vararg parameters |
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1236 {f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result |
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1237 </pre> |
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1238 |
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1239 <p> |
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1240 Any expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value. |
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1241 Thus, |
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1242 <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value, |
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1243 even if <code>f</code> returns several values. |
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1244 (The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code> |
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1245 or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.) |
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1246 |
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1247 |
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1248 |
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1249 <h4 heading><a name="arithmetic" href="#arithmetic">Arithmetic Operators</a></h4> |
395 | 1250 |
1251 <p> | |
1252 Luan supports the following arithmetic operators: | |
371
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1253 |
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1254 <ul> |
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1255 <li><b><code>+</code>: </b>addition</li> |
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1256 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>subtraction</li> |
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1257 <li><b><code>*</code>: </b>multiplication</li> |
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1258 <li><b><code>/</code>: </b>division</li> |
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1259 <li><b><code>%</code>: </b>modulo</li> |
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1260 <li><b><code>^</code>: </b>exponentiation</li> |
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1261 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b>unary minus</li> |
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1262 </ul> |
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1263 |
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1264 <p> |
395 | 1265 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and unary minus are the same as these operators in Java. Exponentiation uses Java's <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Math.html#pow(double,%20double)">Math.pow</a> function. |
371
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1266 |
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1267 <p> |
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1268 Modulo is defined as the remainder of a division |
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1269 that rounds the quotient towards minus infinite (floor division). |
395 | 1270 (The Java modulo operator is not used.) |
371
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1271 |
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1272 |
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1273 |
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1274 <h4 heading><a name="conversions" href="#conversions">Coercions and Conversions</a></h4> |
396 | 1275 |
1276 <p> | |
465 | 1277 Luan generally avoids automatic conversions. |
1278 String concatenation automatically converts all of its arguments to strings. | |
1279 | |
1280 <p> | |
1281 Luan provides library functions for explicit type conversions. | |
371
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1282 |
396 | 1283 |
1284 | |
1285 | |
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1286 <h4 heading><a name="relational" href="#relational">Relational Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1287 |
1288 <p> | |
1289 Luan supports the following relational operators: | |
371
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1290 |
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1291 <ul> |
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1292 <li><b><code>==</code>: </b>equality</li> |
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1293 <li><b><code>~=</code>: </b>inequality</li> |
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1294 <li><b><code><</code>: </b>less than</li> |
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1295 <li><b><code>></code>: </b>greater than</li> |
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1296 <li><b><code><=</code>: </b>less or equal</li> |
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1297 <li><b><code>>=</code>: </b>greater or equal</li> |
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1298 </ul><p> |
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1299 These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1300 |
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1301 |
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1302 <p> |
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1303 Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands. |
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1304 If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>. |
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1305 Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared. |
396 | 1306 Strings, numbers, and binary values are compared in the obvious way (by value). |
1307 | |
1308 <p> | |
1309 Tables | |
371
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1310 are compared by reference: |
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1311 two objects are considered equal only if they are the same object. |
396 | 1312 Every time you create a new table, |
1313 it is different from any previously existing table. | |
1314 Closures are also compared by reference. | |
1315 | |
1316 <p> | |
417 | 1317 You can change the way that Luan compares tables |
464
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1318 by using the "eq" metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
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1319 |
396 | 1320 <p> |
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1321 Java values are compared for equality with the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Object.html#equals(java.lang.Object)"><code>equals</code></a> method. |
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1322 |
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1323 <p> |
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1324 Equality comparisons do not convert strings to numbers |
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1325 or vice versa. |
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1326 Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>, |
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1327 and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different |
371
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1328 entries in a table. |
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1329 |
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1330 |
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1331 <p> |
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1332 The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>). |
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1333 |
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1334 |
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1335 <p> |
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1336 The order operators work as follows. |
396 | 1337 |
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1338 If both arguments are numbers, |
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1339 then they are compared following |
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1340 the usual rule for binary operations. |
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1341 Otherwise, if both arguments are strings, |
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1342 then their values are compared according to the current locale. |
396 | 1343 Otherwise, Luan tries to call the "lt" or the "le" |
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1344 metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
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1345 A comparison <code>a > b</code> is translated to <code>b < a</code> |
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1346 and <code>a >= b</code> is translated to <code>b <= a</code>. |
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1347 |
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1348 |
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1349 |
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1350 |
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1351 |
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1352 <h4 heading><a name="logical_ops" href="#logical_ops">Logical Operators</a></h4> |
396 | 1353 |
1354 <p> | |
1355 The logical operators in Luan are | |
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1356 <b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>. |
396 | 1357 The <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false |
1358 and anything else as true. | |
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1359 Like the control structures (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>), |
396 | 1360 the <b>not</b> operator requires a boolean value. |
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1361 |
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1362 <p> |
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1363 The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>. |
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1364 The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument |
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1365 if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>; |
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1366 otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument. |
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1367 The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument |
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1368 if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>; |
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1369 otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument. |
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1370 Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-circuit evaluation; |
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1371 that is, |
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1372 the second operand is evaluated only if necessary. |
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1373 Here are some examples: |
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1374 |
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1375 <pre> |
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1376 10 or 20 --> 10 |
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1377 10 or error() --> 10 |
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1378 nil or "a" --> "a" |
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1379 nil and 10 --> nil |
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1380 false and error() --> false |
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1381 false and nil --> false |
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1382 false or nil --> nil |
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1383 10 and 20 --> 20 |
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1384 </pre> |
396 | 1385 |
1386 <p> | |
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1387 (In this manual, |
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1388 <code>--></code> indicates the result of the preceding expression.) |
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1389 |
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1390 |
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1391 |
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1392 <h4 heading><a name="concatenation" href="#concatenation">Concatenation</a></h4> |
396 | 1393 |
1394 <p> | |
1395 The string concatenation operator in Luan is | |
562
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1396 denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>'). |
396 | 1397 All operands are converted to strings. |
1398 | |
1399 | |
1400 | |
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1401 <h4 heading><a name="length" href="#length">The Length Operator</a></h4> |
562
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1402 |
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1403 <p> |
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1404 The length operator is denoted by the unary prefix operator <code>#</code>. |
396 | 1405 The length of a string is its number of characters. |
1406 The length of a binary is its number of bytes. | |
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1407 |
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1408 |
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1409 <p> |
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1410 A program can modify the behavior of the length operator for |
562
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1411 any table through the <code>__len</code> metamethod (see <a href="#meta">Metatables and Metamethods</a>). |
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1412 |
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1413 |
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1414 <p> |
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1415 Unless a <code>__len</code> metamethod is given, |
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1416 the length of a table <code>t</code> is defined |
396 | 1417 as the number of elements in <em>sequence</em>, |
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1418 that is, |
396 | 1419 the size of the set of its positive numeric keys is equal to <em>{1..n}</em> |
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1420 for some non-negative integer <em>n</em>. |
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1421 In that case, <em>n</em> is its length. |
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1422 Note that a table like |
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1423 |
562
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1424 <pre> |
371
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1425 {10, 20, nil, 40} |
562
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1426 </pre> |
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1427 |
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1428 <p> |
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1429 has a length of <code>2</code>, because that is the last key in sequence. |
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1430 |
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1431 |
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1432 |
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1433 |
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1434 |
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1435 <h4 heading><a name="precedence" href="#precedence">Precedence</a></h4> |
396 | 1436 |
1437 <p> | |
1438 Operator precedence in Luan follows the table below, | |
371
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1439 from lower to higher priority: |
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1440 |
562
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1441 <pre> |
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1442 or |
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1443 and |
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1444 < > <= >= ~= == |
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1445 .. |
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1446 + - |
396 | 1447 * / % |
1448 unary operators (not # -) | |
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1449 ^ |
562
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1450 </pre> |
396 | 1451 |
1452 <p> | |
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1453 As usual, |
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1454 you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression. |
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1455 The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>') |
371
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1456 operators are right associative. |
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1457 All other binary operators are left associative. |
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1458 |
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1459 |
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1460 |
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1461 |
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1462 |
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1463 <h4 heading><a name="constructors" href="#constructors">Table Constructors</a></h4> |
396 | 1464 |
1465 <p> | |
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1466 Table constructors are expressions that create tables. |
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1467 Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created. |
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1468 A constructor can be used to create an empty table |
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1469 or to create a table and initialize some of its fields. |
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1470 The general syntax for constructors is |
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1471 |
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1472 <pre> |
604
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1473 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ fieldlist ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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1474 fieldlist ::= [field] {fieldsep [field]} |
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1475 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
604
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1476 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ | <b>end_of_line</b> |
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1477 </pre> |
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1478 |
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1479 <p> |
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1480 Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry |
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1481 with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>. |
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1482 A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to |
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1483 <code>["name"] = exp</code>. |
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1484 Finally, fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to |
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1485 <code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive integers |
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1486 starting with 1. |
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1487 Fields in the other formats do not affect this counting. |
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1488 For example, |
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1489 |
562
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1490 <pre> |
371
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1491 a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 } |
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1492 </pre> |
396 | 1493 |
1494 <p> | |
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1495 is equivalent to |
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1496 |
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1497 <pre> |
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1498 do |
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1499 local t = {} |
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1500 t[f(1)] = g |
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1501 t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp |
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1502 t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp |
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1503 t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1 |
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1504 t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp |
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1505 t[30] = 23 |
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1506 t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp |
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1507 a = t |
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1508 end |
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1509 </pre> |
371
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1510 |
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1511 <p> |
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1512 The order of the assignments in a constructor is undefined. |
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1513 (This order would be relevant only when there are repeated keys.) |
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1514 |
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1515 |
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1516 <p> |
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1517 If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code> |
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1518 and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression, |
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1519 then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively |
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1520 (see <a href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a>). |
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1521 |
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1522 |
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1523 <p> |
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1524 The field list can have an optional trailing separator, |
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1525 as a convenience for machine-generated code. |
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1526 |
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1527 |
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1528 |
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1529 |
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1530 |
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1531 <h4 heading><a name="fn_calls" href="#fn_calls">Function Calls</a></h4> |
417 | 1532 |
1533 <p> | |
1534 A function call in Luan has the following syntax: | |
1535 | |
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1536 <pre> |
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1537 functioncall ::= prefixexp args |
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1538 </pre> |
417 | 1539 |
1540 <p> | |
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1541 In a function call, |
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1542 first prefixexp and args are evaluated. |
685 | 1543 The value of prefixexp must have type <em>function</em>. |
1544 This function is called | |
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1545 with the given arguments. |
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1546 |
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1547 |
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1548 <p> |
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1549 Arguments have the following syntax: |
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1550 |
562
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1551 <pre> |
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1552 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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1553 args ::= tableconstructor |
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1554 args ::= LiteralString |
562
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1555 </pre> |
417 | 1556 |
1557 <p> | |
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1558 All argument expressions are evaluated before the call. |
562
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1559 A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is |
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1560 syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>; |
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1561 that is, the argument list is a single new table. |
562
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1562 A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code> |
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1563 (or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>) |
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1564 is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>; |
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1565 that is, the argument list is a single literal string. |
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1566 |
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1567 |
562
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1568 |
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1569 |
1327
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1326
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1570 <h4 heading><a name="fn_def" href="#fn_def">Function Definitions</a></h4> |
371
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1571 |
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1572 <p> |
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1573 The syntax for function definition is |
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1574 |
562
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1575 <pre> |
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1576 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
1092 | 1577 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block end_function |
1578 end_function ::= <b>end_function</b> | <b>end</b> | |
562
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1579 </pre> |
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1580 |
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1581 <p> |
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1582 The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions: |
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1583 |
562
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1584 <pre> |
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1585 stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
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1586 stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
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1587 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
562
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1588 </pre> |
417 | 1589 |
1590 <p> | |
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1591 The statement |
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1592 |
562
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1593 <pre> |
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1594 function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1595 </pre> |
417 | 1596 |
1597 <p> | |
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1598 translates to |
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1599 |
562
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1600 <pre> |
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1601 f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1602 </pre> |
417 | 1603 |
1604 <p> | |
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1605 The statement |
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1606 |
562
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1607 <pre> |
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1608 function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end |
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1609 </pre> |
417 | 1610 |
1611 <p> | |
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1612 translates to |
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1613 |
562
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1614 <pre> |
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1615 t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end |
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1616 </pre> |
417 | 1617 |
1618 <p> | |
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1619 The statement |
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1620 |
562
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1621 <pre> |
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1622 local function f () <em>body</em> end |
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1623 </pre> |
417 | 1624 |
1625 <p> | |
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1626 translates to |
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1627 |
562
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1628 <pre> |
371
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1629 local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1630 </pre> |
417 | 1631 |
1632 <p> | |
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1633 not to |
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1634 |
562
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1635 <pre> |
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1636 local f = function () <em>body</em> end |
562
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1637 </pre> |
417 | 1638 |
1639 <p> | |
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1640 (This only makes a difference when the body of the function |
562
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1641 contains references to <code>f</code>.) |
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|
1642 |
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|
1643 |
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|
1644 <p> |
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1645 A function definition is an executable expression, |
562
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1646 whose value has type <em>function</em>. |
417 | 1647 When Luan precompiles a chunk, |
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1648 all its function bodies are precompiled too. |
417 | 1649 Then, whenever Luan executes the function definition, |
562
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1650 the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>). |
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1651 This function instance (or <em>closure</em>) |
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1652 is the final value of the expression. |
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1653 |
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1654 |
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1655 <p> |
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1656 Parameters act as local variables that are |
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1657 initialized with the argument values: |
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1658 |
562
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1659 <pre> |
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1660 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
562
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1661 </pre> |
417 | 1662 |
1663 <p> | |
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1664 When a function is called, |
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1665 the list of arguments is adjusted to |
1090
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update documentation for last change
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799
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1666 the length of the list of parameters if the list is too short, |
562
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1667 unless the function is a <em>vararg function</em>, |
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1668 which is indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>') |
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1669 at the end of its parameter list. |
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1670 A vararg function does not adjust its argument list; |
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1671 instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them |
562
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1672 to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>, |
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1673 which is also written as three dots. |
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1674 The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments, |
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1675 similar to a function with multiple results. |
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1676 If a vararg expression is used inside another expression |
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1677 or in the middle of a list of expressions, |
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1678 then its return list is adjusted to one element. |
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1679 If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions, |
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1680 then no adjustment is made |
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1681 (unless that last expression is enclosed in parentheses). |
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1682 |
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|
1683 |
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|
1684 <p> |
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|
1685 As an example, consider the following definitions: |
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1686 |
562
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1687 <pre> |
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1688 function f(a, b) end |
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1689 function g(a, b, ...) end |
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1690 function r() return 1,2,3 end |
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1691 </pre> |
417 | 1692 |
1693 <p> | |
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1694 Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and |
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1695 to the vararg expression: |
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1696 |
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1697 <pre> |
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1698 CALL PARAMETERS |
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1699 |
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1700 f(3) a=3, b=nil |
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1701 f(3, 4) a=3, b=4 |
1090
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1702 f(3, 4, 5) runtime error |
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1703 f(r(), 10) runtime error |
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1704 f(r()) runtime error |
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1705 |
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1706 g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing) |
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1707 g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing) |
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1708 g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8 |
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1709 g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3 |
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1710 </pre> |
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1711 |
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1712 <p> |
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1713 Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#control">Control Structures</a>). |
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1714 If control reaches the end of a function |
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1715 without encountering a <b>return</b> statement, |
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1716 then the function returns with no results. |
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1717 |
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1718 |
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1719 <h3 heading><a name="visibility" href="#visibility">Visibility Rules</a></h3> |
417 | 1720 |
1721 <p> | |
1722 Luan is a lexically scoped language. | |
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1723 The scope of a local variable begins at the first statement after |
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1724 its declaration and lasts until the last non-void statement |
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1725 of the innermost block that includes the declaration. |
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1726 Consider the following example: |
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1727 |
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1728 <pre> |
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1729 x = 10 -- global variable |
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1730 do -- new block |
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1731 local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10 |
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1732 print(x) --> 10 |
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1733 x = x+1 |
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1734 do -- another block |
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1735 local x = x+1 -- another 'x' |
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1736 print(x) --> 12 |
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1737 end |
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1738 print(x) --> 11 |
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1739 end |
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1740 print(x) --> 10 (the global one) |
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1741 </pre> |
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1742 |
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1743 <p> |
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1744 Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>, |
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1745 the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet, |
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1746 and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable. |
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1747 |
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1748 |
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1749 <p> |
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1750 Because of the lexical scoping rules, |
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1751 local variables can be freely accessed by functions |
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1752 defined inside their scope. |
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1753 A local variable used by an inner function is called |
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1754 an <em>upvalue</em>, or <em>external local variable</em>, |
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1755 inside the inner function. |
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1756 |
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1757 |
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1758 <p> |
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1759 Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement |
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1760 defines new local variables. |
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1761 Consider the following example: |
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1762 |
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1763 <pre> |
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1764 a = {} |
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1765 local x = 20 |
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1766 for i=1,10 do |
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1767 local y = 0 |
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1768 a[i] = function () y=y+1; return x+y end |
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1769 end |
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1770 </pre> |
417 | 1771 |
1772 <p> | |
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1773 The loop creates ten closures |
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1774 (that is, ten instances of the anonymous function). |
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1775 Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable, |
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1776 while all of them share the same <code>x</code>. |
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1777 |
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1778 |
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1779 |
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1780 |
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1781 |
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1782 <h2 heading><a name="libs" href="#libs">Standard Libraries</a></h2> |
468 | 1783 |
1784 <p> | |
1785 The standard Luan libraries provide useful functions | |
1786 that are implemented both in Java and in Luan itself. | |
1787 How each function is implemented shouldn't matter to the user. | |
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1788 Some of these functions provide essential services to the language |
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1789 (e.g., <a href="#Luan.type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>get_metatable</code></a>); |
468 | 1790 others provide access to "outside" services (e.g., I/O). |
1791 | |
1792 | |
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1793 <h3 heading><a name="default_lib" href="#default_lib">Default Environment</a></h3> |
468 | 1794 |
1795 <p> | |
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1796 This is provided by default as a local variable for any Luan code as described in <a href="#env">Environments</a>. |
470 | 1797 |
1798 | |
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1799 <h4 heading><a name="require" href="#require"><code>require (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1800 |
1801 <p> | |
1802 Example use: | |
1803 | |
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1804 <pre> |
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1805 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
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1806 </pre> |
470 | 1807 |
1808 <p> | |
1809 Could be defined as: | |
1810 | |
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1811 <pre> |
470 | 1812 local function require(mod_name) |
476 | 1813 return <a href="#Package.load">Package.load</a>(mod_name) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("module '"..mod_name.."' not found") |
470 | 1814 end |
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1815 </pre> |
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1816 |
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1817 <p> |
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1818 A special case is: |
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1819 |
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1820 <pre> |
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1821 require "java" |
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1822 </pre> |
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1823 |
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1824 <p> |
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1825 This enables Java in the current chunk if that chunk has permission to use Java. If the chunk doesn't have permission to use Java, then an error is thrown. |
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1826 |
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1827 |
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1828 <h3 heading><a name="luan_lib" href="#luan_lib">Basic Functions</a></h3> |
470 | 1829 |
1830 <p> | |
1831 Include this library by: | |
1832 | |
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1833 <pre> |
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1834 local Luan = require "luan:Luan.luan" |
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1835 </pre> |
470 | 1836 |
476 | 1837 <p> |
470 | 1838 The basic library provides basic functions to Luan that don't depend on other libaries. |
1839 | |
1840 | |
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1841 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.do_file" href="#Luan.do_file"><code>Luan.do_file ([uri])</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1842 |
1843 <p> | |
1844 Could be defined as: | |
1845 | |
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1846 <pre> |
470 | 1847 function Luan.do_file(uri) |
1316
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1848 local fn = <a href="#Luan.load_file">Luan.load_file</a>(uri) or <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a>("file '"..uri.."' not found") |
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1849 return fn() |
470 | 1850 end |
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1851 </pre> |
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1852 |
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1853 |
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1854 |
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1855 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.error" href="#Luan.error"><code>Luan.error (message)</code></a></h4> |
470 | 1856 |
1857 <p> | |
482 | 1858 Throws an error containing the message. |
1859 | |
1860 <p> | |
1861 Could be defined as: | |
1862 | |
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1863 <pre> |
482 | 1864 function Luan.error(message) |
1865 <a href="#Luan.new_error">Luan.new_error</a>(message).throw() | |
1866 end | |
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1867 </pre> |
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1868 |
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1869 |
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1870 |
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1871 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.eval" href="#Luan.eval"><code>Luan.eval (text [, source_name [, env]])</code></a></h4> |
695 | 1872 |
1873 <p> | |
1874 Evaluates <code>text</code> as a Luan expression. | |
1875 | |
1876 <p> | |
1877 Could be defined as: | |
1878 | |
1879 <pre> | |
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1880 function Luan.eval(text,source_name, env) |
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1881 return <a href="#Luan.load">Luan.load</a>( "return "..text, source_name or "eval", env )() |
695 | 1882 end |
1883 </pre> | |
1884 | |
1885 | |
1886 | |
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1887 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.get_metatable" href="#Luan.get_metatable"><code>Luan.get_metatable (table)</code></a></h4> |
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1888 |
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1889 <p> |
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1890 If <code>table</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>. |
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1891 Otherwise, |
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1892 if the table's metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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1893 returns the associated value. |
470 | 1894 Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given table. |
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1895 |
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1896 |
1373 | 1897 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.hash_code" href="#Luan.ipairs"><code>Luan.hash_code (v)</code></a></h4> |
1898 | |
1899 <p> | |
1900 Returns the hash code of <code>v</code>. | |
1901 | |
1902 | |
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1903 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.ipairs" href="#Luan.ipairs"><code>Luan.ipairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
474 | 1904 |
1905 <p> | |
1906 Returns an iterator function | |
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1907 so that the construction |
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1908 |
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1909 <pre> |
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1910 for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1911 </pre> |
474 | 1912 |
1913 <p> | |
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1914 will iterate over the key–value pairs |
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1915 (<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ..., |
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1916 up to the first nil value. |
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1917 |
474 | 1918 <p> |
1919 Could be defined as: | |
1920 | |
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1921 <pre> |
474 | 1922 function Luan.ipairs(t) |
1923 local i = 0 | |
1924 return function() | |
1925 if i < #t then | |
1926 i = i + 1 | |
1927 return i, t[i] | |
1928 end | |
1929 end | |
1930 end | |
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1931 </pre> |
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1932 |
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1933 |
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1934 |
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1935 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load" href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load (text, [source_name [, env [, persist]]])</code></a></h4> |
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1936 |
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1937 <p> |
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1938 Loads a chunk. |
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1939 |
474 | 1940 <p> |
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1941 The <code>text</code> is compiled. |
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1942 If there are no syntactic errors, |
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1943 returns the compiled chunk as a function; |
474 | 1944 otherwise, throws an error. |
1945 | |
1946 <p> | |
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1947 The <code>source_name</code> parameter is a string saying where the text came from. It is used to produce error messages. Defaults to "load". |
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1948 |
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1949 <p> |
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1950 If the <code>env</code> parameter is supplied, it becomes the <code>_ENV</code> of the chunk. |
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1951 |
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1952 <p> |
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1953 The <code>persist</code> parameter is a boolean which determines if the compiled code is persistently cached to a temporary file. Defaults to <code>false</code>. |
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1954 |
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1955 |
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1956 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.load_file" href="#Luan.load_file"><code>Luan.load_file (file_uri)</code></a></h4> |
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1957 |
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1958 <p> |
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1959 Similar to <a href="#Luan.load"><code>load</code></a>, |
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1960 but gets the chunk from file <code>file_uri</code>. |
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1961 <code>file_uri</code> can be a string or a uri table. |
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1962 |
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1963 |
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1964 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.new_error" href="#Luan.new_error"><code>Luan.new_error (message)</code></a></h4> |
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1965 |
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1966 <p> |
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1967 Creates a new error table containing the message assigned to "<code>message</code>". The error table also contains a <code>throw</code> function which throws the error. The table also contains a list of stack trace elements where each stack trace element is a table containing "<code>source</code>", "<code>line</code>", and possible "<code>call_to</code>". The table also has a metatable containing "<code>__to_string</code>" to render the error. |
482 | 1968 |
1969 <p> | |
1970 To print the current stack trace, you could do: | |
1971 | |
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1972 <pre> |
482 | 1973 Io.print( Luan.new_error "stack" ) |
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1974 </pre> |
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1975 |
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1976 |
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1977 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.pairs" href="#Luan.pairs"><code>Luan.pairs (t)</code></a></h4> |
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1978 |
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1979 <p> |
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1980 If <code>t</code> has a metamethod <code>__pairs</code>, |
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1981 calls it with <code>t</code> as argument and returns the |
475 | 1982 result from the call. |
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1983 |
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1984 |
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1985 <p> |
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1986 Otherwise, |
475 | 1987 returns a function |
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1988 so that the construction |
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1989 |
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1990 <pre> |
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1991 for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end |
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1992 </pre> |
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1993 |
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1994 <p> |
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1995 will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>. |
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1996 |
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1997 |
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1998 |
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1999 <p> |
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2000 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3> |
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2001 Receives any number of arguments |
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2002 and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>, |
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2003 using the <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> function to convert each argument to a string. |
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2004 <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output, |
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2005 but only as a quick way to show a value, |
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2006 for instance for debugging. |
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2007 For complete control over the output, |
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2008 use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.write"><code>io.write</code></a>. |
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2009 |
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2010 |
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2011 |
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2012 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.range" href="#Luan.range"><code>Luan.range (start, stop [, step])</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2013 |
2014 <p> | |
2015 Based on <a href="https://docs.python.org/2/library/functions.html#range">the Python range() function</a>, this lets one iterate through a sequence of numbers. | |
2016 | |
2017 <p> | |
2018 Example use: | |
2019 | |
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2020 <pre> |
476 | 2021 for i in range(1,10) do |
2022 Io.print("count up:",i) | |
2023 end | |
2024 for i in range(10,0,-1) do | |
2025 Io.print("count down:",i) | |
2026 end | |
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2027 </pre> |
476 | 2028 |
2029 <p> | |
2030 Could be defined as: | |
2031 | |
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2032 <pre> |
476 | 2033 function Luan.range(start, stop, step) |
2034 step = step or 1 | |
478 | 2035 step == 0 and <a href="#Luan.error">Luan.error</a> "bad argument #3 (step may not be zero)" |
476 | 2036 local i = start |
2037 return function() | |
2038 if step > 0 and i <= stop or step < 0 and i >= stop then | |
2039 local rtn = i | |
2040 i = i + step | |
2041 return rtn | |
2042 end | |
2043 end | |
2044 end | |
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2045 </pre> |
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2046 |
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2047 |
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2048 |
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2049 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_equal" href="#Luan.raw_equal"><code>Luan.raw_equal (v1, v2)</code></a></h4> |
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2050 |
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2051 <p> |
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2052 Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>, |
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2053 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2054 Returns a boolean. |
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2055 |
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2056 |
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2057 |
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2058 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_get" href="#Luan.raw_get"><code>Luan.raw_get (table, index)</code></a></h4> |
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2059 |
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2060 <p> |
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2061 Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>, |
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2062 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2063 <code>table</code> must be a table; |
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2064 <code>index</code> may be any value. |
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2065 |
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2066 |
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2067 |
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2068 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_len" href="#Luan.raw_len"><code>Luan.raw_len (v)</code></a></h4> |
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2069 |
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2070 <p> |
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2071 Returns the length of the object <code>v</code>, |
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2072 which must be a table or a string, |
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2073 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2074 Returns an integer. |
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2075 |
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2076 |
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2077 |
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2078 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.raw_set" href="#Luan.raw_set"><code>Luan.raw_set (table, index, value)</code></a></h4> |
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2079 |
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2080 <p> |
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2081 Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>, |
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2082 without invoking any metamethod. |
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2083 <code>table</code> must be a table, |
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2084 <code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b>, |
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2085 and <code>value</code> any Lua value. |
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2086 |
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2087 |
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2088 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.set_metatable" href="#Luan.set_metatable"><code>Luan.set_metatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h4> |
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2089 |
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2090 <p> |
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2091 Sets the metatable for the given table. |
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2092 If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>, |
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2093 removes the metatable of the given table. |
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2094 If the original metatable has a <code>"__metatable"</code> field, |
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2095 raises an error. |
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2096 |
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2097 |
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2098 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.stringify" href="#Luan.stringify"><code>Luan.stringify (v [,options])</code></a></h4> |
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2099 |
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2100 <p> |
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2101 Receives a value of any type and converts it to a string that is a Luan expression. <code>options</code> is a table. If <code>options.strict==true</code> then invalid types throw an error. Otherwise invalid types are represented but the resulting expression is invalid. If <code>options.number_types==true</code> then numbers will be wrapped in functions for their type. |
1189 | 2102 |
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2103 |
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2104 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.to_string" href="#Luan.to_string"><code>Luan.to_string (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2105 |
2106 <p> | |
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2107 Receives a value of any type and |
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2108 converts it to a string in a human-readable format. |
475 | 2109 |
2110 <p> | |
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2111 If the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>"__to_string"</code> field, |
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2112 then <code>to_string</code> calls the corresponding value |
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2113 with <code>v</code> as argument, |
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2114 and uses the result of the call as its result. |
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2115 |
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2116 |
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2117 |
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2118 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.type" href="#Luan.type"><code>Luan.type (v)</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2119 |
2120 <p> | |
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2121 Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string. |
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2122 The possible results of this function are |
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2123 "<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>), |
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2124 "<code>number</code>", |
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2125 "<code>string</code>", |
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2126 "<code>binary</code>", |
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2127 "<code>boolean</code>", |
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2128 "<code>table</code>", |
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2129 "<code>function</code>", |
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2130 and "<code>java</code>". |
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2131 |
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2132 |
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2133 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.values" href="#Luan.values"><code>Luan.values (···)</code></a></h4> |
476 | 2134 |
2135 <p> | |
2136 Returns a function so that the construction | |
2137 | |
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2138 <pre> |
1276 | 2139 for i, v in Luan.values(···) do <em>body</em> end |
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2140 </pre> |
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2141 |
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2142 <p> |
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2143 will iterate over all values of <code>···</code>. |
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2144 |
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2145 |
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2146 |
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2147 <h4 heading><a name="Luan.VERSION" href="#Luan.VERSION"><code>Luan.VERSION</code></a></h4> |
475 | 2148 |
2149 <p> | |
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2150 A global variable (not a function) that |
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2151 holds a string containing the current Luan version. |
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2152 |
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2153 |
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2154 |
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2155 |
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2156 |
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2157 |
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2158 <h3 heading><a name="package_lib" href="#package_lib">Modules</a></h3> |
476 | 2159 |
2160 <p> | |
2161 Include this library by: | |
2162 | |
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2163 <pre> |
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2164 local Package = require "luan:Package.luan" |
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2165 </pre> |
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2166 |
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2167 <p> |
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2168 The package library provides basic |
476 | 2169 facilities for loading modules in Luan. |
2170 | |
2171 | |
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2172 <h4 heading><a name="Package.load" href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load (mod_uri)</code></a></h4> |
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2173 |
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2174 <p> |
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2175 Loads the given module. |
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2176 The function starts by looking into the <a href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a> table |
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2177 to determine whether <code>mod_uri</code> is already loaded. |
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2178 If it is, then <code>Package.load</code> returns the value stored |
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2179 at <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. |
476 | 2180 Otherwise, it tries to load a new value for the module. |
2181 | |
2182 <p> | |
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2183 To load a new value, <code>Package.load</code> first checks if <code>mod_uri</code> starts with "<b>java:</b>". If yes, then this is a Java class which is loaded by special Java code. |
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2184 |
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2185 <p> |
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2186 Otherwise <code>Package.load</code> tries to read the text of the file referred to by <code>mod_uri</code>. If the file doesn't exist, then <code>Package.load</code> returns <b>false</b>. If the file exists, then its content is compiled into a chunk by calling <a href="#Luan.load"><code>Luan.load</code></a>. This chunk is run passing in <code>mod_uri</code> as an argument. The value returned by the chunk must not be <b>nil</b> and is loaded. |
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2187 |
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2188 <p> |
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2189 If a new value for the module successful loaded, then it is stored in <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code>. The value is returned. |
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2190 |
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2191 |
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2192 |
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2193 |
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2194 <h4 heading><a name="Package.loaded" href="#Package.loaded"><code>Package.loaded</code></a></h4> |
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2195 |
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2196 |
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2197 <p> |
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2198 A table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> to control which |
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2199 modules are already loaded. |
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2200 When you load a module <code>mod_uri</code> and |
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2201 <code>Package.loaded[mod_uri]</code> is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2202 <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a> simply returns the value stored there. |
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2203 |
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2204 |
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2205 <p> |
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2206 This variable is only a reference to the real table; |
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2207 assignments to this variable do not change the |
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2208 table used by <a href="#Package.load"><code>Package.load</code></a>. |
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2209 |
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2210 |
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2211 |
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2212 |
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2213 |
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2214 |
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2215 <h3 heading><a name="string_lib" href="#string_lib">String Manipulation</a></h3> |
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2216 |
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2217 <p> |
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2218 Include this library by: |
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2219 |
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2220 <pre> |
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2221 local String = require "luan:String.luan" |
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2222 </pre> |
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2223 |
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2224 <p> |
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2225 This library provides generic functions for string manipulation, |
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2226 such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching. |
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2227 When indexing a string in Luan, the first character is at position 1 |
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2228 (not at 0, as in Java). |
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2229 Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards, |
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2230 from the end of the string. |
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2231 Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on. |
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2232 |
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2233 |
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2234 |
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2235 <h4 heading><a name="String.char" href="#String.char"><code>String.char (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2236 |
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2237 <p> |
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2238 Receives zero or more integers. |
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2239 Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments, |
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2240 in which each character has the internal numerical code equal |
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2241 to its corresponding argument. |
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2242 |
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2243 |
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2244 <h4 heading><a name="String.encode" href="#String.encode"><code>String.encode (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2245 |
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2246 <p> |
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2247 Encodes argument <code>s</code> into a string that can be placed in quotes so as to return the original value of the string. |
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2248 |
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2249 |
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2250 |
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2251 |
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2252 <h4 heading><a name="String.find" href="#String.find"><code>String.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h4> |
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2253 |
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2254 <p> |
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2255 Looks for the first match of |
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2256 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2257 If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code> |
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2258 where this occurrence starts and ends; |
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2259 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2260 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2261 where to start the search; |
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2262 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2263 A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code> |
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2264 turns off the pattern matching facilities, |
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2265 so the function does a plain "find substring" operation, |
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2266 with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered magic. |
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2267 Note that if <code>plain</code> is given, then <code>init</code> must be given as well. |
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2268 |
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2269 <p> |
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2270 If the pattern has captures, |
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2271 then in a successful match |
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2272 the captured values are also returned, |
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2273 after the two indices. |
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2274 |
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2275 |
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2276 |
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2277 |
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2278 <h4 heading><a name="String.format" href="#String.format"><code>String.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h4> |
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2279 |
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2280 |
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2281 <p> |
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2282 Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments |
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2283 following the description given in its first argument (which must be a string). |
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2284 The format string follows the same rules as the Java function <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#format(java.lang.String,%20java.lang.Object...)"><code>String.format</code></a> because Luan calls this internally. |
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2285 |
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2286 <p> |
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2287 Note that Java's <code>String.format</code> is too stupid to convert between ints and floats, so you must provide the right kind of number. |
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2288 |
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2289 |
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2290 |
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2291 <h4 heading><a name="String.gmatch" href="#String.gmatch"><code>String.gmatch (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2292 |
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2293 <p> |
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2294 Returns an iterator function that, |
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2295 each time it is called, |
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2296 returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) |
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2297 over the string <code>s</code>. |
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2298 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2299 then the whole match is produced in each call. |
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2300 |
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2301 |
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2302 <p> |
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2303 As an example, the following loop |
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2304 will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>, |
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2305 printing one per line: |
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2306 |
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2307 <pre> |
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2308 local s = "hello world from Lua" |
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2309 for w in String.gmatch(s, [[\w+]]) do |
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2310 print(w) |
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2311 end |
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2312 </pre> |
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2313 |
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2314 <p> |
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2315 The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the |
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2316 given string into a table: |
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2317 |
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2318 <pre> |
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2319 local t = {} |
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2320 local s = "from=world, to=Lua" |
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2321 for k, v in String.gmatch(s, [[(\w+)=(\w+)]]) do |
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2322 t[k] = v |
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2323 end |
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2324 </pre> |
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2325 |
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2326 <p> |
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2327 For this function, a caret '<code>^</code>' at the start of a pattern does not |
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2328 work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration. |
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2329 |
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2330 |
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2331 |
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2332 <h4 heading><a name="String.gsub" href="#String.gsub"><code>String.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h4> |
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2333 |
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2334 <p> |
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2335 Returns a copy of <code>s</code> |
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2336 in which all (or the first <code>n</code>, if given) |
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2337 occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) have been |
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2338 replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>, |
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2339 which can be a string, a table, or a function. |
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2340 <code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value, |
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2341 the total number of matches that occurred. |
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2342 The name <code>gsub</code> comes from <em>Global SUBstitution</em>. |
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2343 |
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2344 |
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2345 <p> |
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2346 If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement. |
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2347 The character <code>\</code> works as an escape character. |
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2348 Any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>$<em>d</em></code>, |
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2349 with <em>d</em> between 1 and 9, |
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2350 stands for the value of the <em>d</em>-th captured substring. |
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2351 The sequence <code>$0</code> stands for the whole match. |
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2352 |
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2353 |
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2354 <p> |
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2355 If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match, |
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2356 using the first capture as the key. |
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2357 |
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2358 |
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2359 <p> |
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2360 If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a |
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2361 match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments, |
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2362 in order. |
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2363 |
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2364 |
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2365 <p> |
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2366 In any case, |
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2367 if the pattern specifies no captures, |
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2368 then it behaves as if the whole pattern was inside a capture. |
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2369 |
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2370 |
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2371 <p> |
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2372 If the value returned by the table query or by the function call |
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2373 is not <b>nil</b>, |
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2374 then it is used as the replacement string; |
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2375 otherwise, if it is <b>nil</b>, |
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2376 then there is no replacement |
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2377 (that is, the original match is kept in the string). |
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2378 |
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2379 |
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2380 <p> |
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2381 Here are some examples: |
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2382 |
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2383 <pre> |
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2384 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[(\w+)]], "$1 $1") |
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2385 --> x="hello hello world world" |
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2386 |
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2387 x = String.gsub("hello world", [[\w+]], "$0 $0", 1) |
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2388 --> x="hello hello world" |
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2389 |
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2390 x = String.gsub("hello world from Luan", [[(\w+)\s*(\w+)]], "$2 $1") |
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2391 --> x="world hello Luan from" |
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|
2392 |
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2393 x = String.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", [[\$(.*?)\$]], function (s) |
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2394 return load(s)() |
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2395 end) |
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2396 --> x="4+5 = 9" |
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|
2397 |
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2398 local t = {name="lua", version="5.3"} |
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2399 x = String.gsub("$name-$version.tar.gz", [[\$(\w+)]], t) |
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2400 --> x="lua-5.3.tar.gz" |
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2401 </pre> |
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2402 |
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2403 |
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2404 <h4 heading><a name="String.lower" href="#String.lower"><code>String.lower (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2405 <p> |
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2406 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2407 uppercase letters changed to lowercase. |
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2408 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2409 |
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2410 |
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2411 |
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2412 <h4 heading><a name="String.match" href="#String.match"><code>String.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h4> |
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2413 |
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2414 <p> |
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2415 Looks for the first <em>match</em> of |
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2416 <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html">Pattern</a>) in the string <code>s</code>. |
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2417 If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns |
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2418 the captures from the pattern; |
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2419 otherwise it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2420 If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures, |
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2421 then the whole match is returned. |
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2422 A third, optional numerical argument <code>init</code> specifies |
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2423 where to start the search; |
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2424 its default value is 1 and can be negative. |
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2425 |
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2426 |
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2427 <h4 heading><a name="String.matches" href="#String.matches"><code>String.matches (s, pattern)</code></a></h4> |
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2428 <p> |
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2429 Returns a boolean indicating whether the <code>pattern</code> can be found in string <code>s</code>. |
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2430 This function is equivalent to |
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2431 |
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2432 <pre> |
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2433 return String.match(s,pattern) ~= nil |
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2434 </pre> |
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2435 |
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2436 |
1422 | 2437 <h4 heading><a name="String.regex_quote" href="#String.regex_quote"><code>String.regex_quote (s)</code></a></h4> |
2438 <p> | |
2439 Returns a string which matches the literal string <code>s</code> in a regular expression. This function is simply the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/util/regex/Pattern.html#quote(java.lang.String)"><code>Pattern.quote</code></a>. | |
2440 | |
2441 | |
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2442 <h4 heading><a name="String.rep" href="#String.rep"><code>String.rep (s, n [, sep])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2443 <p> |
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2444 Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of |
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2445 the string <code>s</code> separated by the string <code>sep</code>. |
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2446 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string |
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2447 (that is, no separator). |
562
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2448 Returns the empty string if <code>n</code> is not positive. |
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2449 |
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2450 |
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2451 |
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2452 |
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2453 <h4 heading><a name="String.reverse" href="#String.reverse"><code>String.reverse (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2454 <p> |
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2455 Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed. |
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2456 |
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2457 |
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2458 |
1195 | 2459 <h4 heading><a name="String.split" href="#String.match"><code>String.split (s, pattern [, limit])</code></a></h4> |
2460 | |
2461 <p> | |
2462 Splits <code>s</code> using regex <code>pattern</code> and returns the results. If <code>limit</code> is positive, then only returns at most that many results. If <code>limit</code> is zero, then remove trailing empty results. | |
2463 | |
2464 | |
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2465 |
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2466 <h4 heading><a name="String.sub" href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2467 |
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2468 <p> |
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2469 Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that |
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2470 starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>; |
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2471 <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> can be negative. |
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2472 If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1 |
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2473 (which is the same as the string length). |
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2474 In particular, |
562
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2475 the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code> |
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2476 with length <code>j</code>, |
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2477 and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> returns a suffix of <code>s</code> |
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2478 with length <code>i</code>. |
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2479 |
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2480 |
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2481 <p> |
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2482 If, after the translation of negative indices, |
562
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2483 <code>i</code> is less than 1, |
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2484 it is corrected to 1. |
562
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2485 If <code>j</code> is greater than the string length, |
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2486 it is corrected to that length. |
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2487 If, after these corrections, |
562
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2488 <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, |
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2489 the function returns the empty string. |
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2490 |
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|
2491 |
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2492 |
642
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2493 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_binary" href="#String.to_binary"><code>String.to_binary (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2494 |
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2495 <p> |
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2496 Converts a string to a binary by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#getBytes()"><code>String.getBytes</code></a>. |
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2497 |
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2498 |
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2499 |
642
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2500 <h4 heading><a name="String.to_number" href="#String.to_number"><code>String.to_number (s [, base])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2501 |
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2502 <p> |
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2503 When called with no <code>base</code>, |
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2504 <code>to_number</code> tries to convert its argument to a number. |
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2505 If the argument is |
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2506 a string convertible to a number, |
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2507 then <code>to_number</code> returns this number; |
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2508 otherwise, it returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2509 |
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2510 The conversion of strings can result in integers or floats. |
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2511 |
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2512 |
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2513 <p> |
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2514 When called with <code>base</code>, |
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2515 then <code>s</code> must be a string to be interpreted as |
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2516 an integer numeral in that base. |
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2517 In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case) |
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2518 represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth, |
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2519 with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35. |
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2520 If the string <code>s</code> is not a valid numeral in the given base, |
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2521 the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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2522 |
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2523 |
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2524 |
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2525 <h4 heading><a name="String.trim" href="#String.trim"><code>String.trim (s)</code></a></h4> |
562
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2526 |
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2527 <p> |
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2528 Removes the leading and trailing whitespace by calling the Java method <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#trim()"><code>String.trim</code></a>. |
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2529 |
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2530 |
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2531 |
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2532 |
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2533 <h4 heading><a name="String.unicode" href="#String.unicode"><code>String.unicode (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
562
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2534 |
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2535 <p> |
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2536 Returns the internal numerical codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>, |
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2537 <code>s[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>s[j]</code>. |
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2538 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; |
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2539 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. |
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2540 These indices are corrected |
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2541 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. |
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2542 |
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2543 |
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2544 |
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2545 |
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2546 |
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2547 <h4 heading><a name="String.upper" href="#String.upper"><code>String.upper (s)</code></a></h4> |
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2548 <p> |
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2549 Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all |
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2550 lowercase letters changed to uppercase. |
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2551 All other characters are left unchanged. |
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2552 The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale. |
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2553 |
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2554 |
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2555 |
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2556 |
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2557 |
1327
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|
2558 <h3 heading><a name="binary_lib" href="#binary_lib">Binary Manipulation</a></h3> |
567 | 2559 |
2560 <p> | |
2561 Include this library by: | |
2562 | |
2563 <pre> | |
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2564 local Binary = require "luan:Binary.luan" |
567 | 2565 </pre> |
2566 | |
2567 | |
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2568 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.binary" href="#Binary.binary"><code>Binary.binary (···)</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2569 |
2570 <p> | |
2571 Receives zero or more bytes (as integers). | |
2572 Returns a binary with length equal to the number of arguments, | |
2573 in which each byte has the internal numerical code equal | |
2574 to its corresponding argument. | |
2575 | |
2576 | |
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2577 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.byte" href="#Binary.byte"><code>Binary.byte (b [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
567 | 2578 |
2579 <p> | |
2580 Returns the internal numerical codes of the bytes <code>b[i]</code>, | |
2581 <code>b[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>b[j]</code>. | |
2582 The default value for <code>i</code> is 1; | |
2583 the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>. | |
2584 These indices are corrected | |
2585 following the same rules of function <a href="#String.sub"><code>String.sub</code></a>. | |
2586 | |
2587 | |
1257
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2588 <h4 heading><a name="Binary.to_string" href="#Binary.to_string"><code>Binary.to_string (b [,charset])</code></a></h4> |
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2589 <p> |
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2590 If <code>charset</code> is not nil then converts the binary <code>b</code> to a string using the Java <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/String.html#String(byte[],%20java.lang.String)">String constructor</a>, else makes each byte a char. |
567 | 2591 |
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2592 |
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2593 |
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2594 |
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2595 <h3 heading><a name="table_lib" href="#table_lib">Table Manipulation</a></h3> |
565
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2596 |
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2597 <p> |
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2598 Include this library by: |
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2599 |
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2600 <pre> |
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2601 local Table = require "luan:Table.luan" |
565
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2602 </pre> |
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2603 |
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2604 <p> |
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2605 This library provides generic functions for table manipulation. |
565
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2606 It provides all its functions inside the table <code>Table</code>. |
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2607 |
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2608 |
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2609 |
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2610 <h4 heading><a name="Table.clear" href="#Table.clear"><code>Table.clear (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
580 | 2611 |
2612 <p> | |
2613 Clears the table. | |
2614 | |
2615 | |
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2616 <h4 heading><a name="Table.concat" href="#Table.concat"><code>Table.concat (list [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2617 |
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2618 <p> |
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2619 Given a list, |
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2620 returns the string <code>list[i]..sep..list[i+1] ··· sep..list[j]</code>. |
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2621 The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string, |
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2622 the default for <code>i</code> is 1, |
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2623 and the default for <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>. |
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2624 If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string. |
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2625 |
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2626 |
642
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2627 <h4 heading><a name="Table.copy" href="#Table.copy"><code>Table.copy (tbl [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
565
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2628 |
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2629 <p> |
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2630 If <code>i</code> is <code>nil</code>, returns a shallow copy of <code>tbl</code>. |
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2631 Otherwise returns a new table which is a list of the elements <code>tbl[i] ··· tbl[j]</code>. |
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2632 By default, <code>j</code> is <code>#tbl</code>. |
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2633 |
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2634 |
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2635 |
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2636 <h4 heading><a name="Table.insert" href="#Table.insert"><code>Table.insert (list, pos, value)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2637 |
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2638 <p> |
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2639 Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>list</code>, |
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2640 shifting up the elements |
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2641 <code>list[pos], list[pos+1], ···, list[#list]</code>. |
565
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2642 |
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2643 |
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2644 |
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2645 <h4 heading><a name="Table.is_empty" href="#Table.is_empty"><code>Table.is_empty (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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2646 |
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2647 |
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2648 |
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2649 <h4 heading><a name="Table.pack" href="#Table.pack"><code>Table.pack (···)</code></a></h4> |
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2650 |
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2651 <p> |
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2652 Returns a new table with all parameters stored into keys 1, 2, etc. |
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2653 and with a field "<code>n</code>" with the total number of parameters. |
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2654 Note that the resulting table may not be a sequence. |
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2655 |
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|
2656 |
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|
2657 |
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2658 |
642
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2659 <h4 heading><a name="Table.remove" href="#Table.remove"><code>Table.remove (list, pos)</code></a></h4> |
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2660 |
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|
2661 |
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|
2662 <p> |
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2663 Removes from <code>list</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>, |
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2664 returning the value of the removed element. |
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2665 When <code>pos</code> is an integer between 1 and <code>#list</code>, |
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2666 it shifts down the elements |
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2667 <code>list[pos+1], list[pos+2], ···, list[#list]</code> |
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2668 and erases element <code>list[#list]</code>; |
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2669 The index <code>pos</code> can also be 0 when <code>#list</code> is 0, |
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2670 or <code>#list + 1</code>; |
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2671 in those cases, the function erases the element <code>list[pos]</code>. |
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2672 |
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2673 |
565
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2674 |
1100
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2675 <h4 heading><a name="Table.size" href="#Table.size"><code>Table.size (tbl)</code></a></h4> |
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2676 |
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2677 |
565
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2678 |
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2679 <h4 heading><a name="Table.sort" href="#Table.sort"><code>Table.sort (list [, comp])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2680 |
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2681 <p> |
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2682 Sorts list elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>, |
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2683 from <code>list[1]</code> to <code>list[#list]</code>. |
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2684 If <code>comp</code> is given, |
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2685 then it must be a function that receives two list elements |
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2686 and returns true when the first element must come |
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2687 before the second in the final order |
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2688 (so that <code>not comp(list[i+1],list[i])</code> will be true after the sort). |
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2689 If <code>comp</code> is not given, |
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2690 then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead. |
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2691 |
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2692 <p> |
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2693 The sort algorithm is not stable; |
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2694 that is, elements considered equal by the given order |
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2695 may have their relative positions changed by the sort. |
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2696 |
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2697 |
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2698 |
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2699 <h4 heading><a name="Table.unpack" href="#Table.unpack"><code>Table.unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h4> |
371
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2700 |
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2701 <p> |
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2702 Returns the elements from the given list. |
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|
2703 This function is equivalent to |
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2704 |
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|
2705 <pre> |
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|
2706 return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j] |
565
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2707 </pre> |
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|
2708 |
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|
2709 <p> |
1277 | 2710 By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is <code>list.n or #list</code>. |
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2711 |
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2712 |
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|
2713 |
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|
2714 |
1327
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|
2715 <h3 heading><a name="number_lib" href="#number_lib">Number Manipulation</a></h3> |
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2716 |
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|
2717 <p> |
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|
2718 Include this library by: |
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|
2719 |
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|
2720 <pre> |
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|
2721 local Number = require "luan:Number.luan" |
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2722 </pre> |
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|
2723 |
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|
2724 |
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2725 <h4 heading><a name="Number.double" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.double (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2726 <p> |
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2727 Returns <code>x</code> as a double. |
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|
2728 |
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|
2729 |
1342
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|
2730 <h4 heading><a name="Number.float" href="#Number.double"><code>Number.float (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2731 <p> |
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|
2732 Returns <code>x</code> as a float. |
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|
2733 |
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|
2734 |
642
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|
2735 <h4 heading><a name="Number.integer" href="#Number.integer"><code>Number.integer (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2736 <p> |
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|
2737 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an integer, |
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|
2738 returns that integer. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2739 Otherwise throws an error. |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2740 |
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|
2741 |
642
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|
2742 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long" href="#Number.long"><code>Number.long (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2743 <p> |
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diff
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|
2744 If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an long, |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2745 returns that long. |
90b93790c544
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diff
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|
2746 Otherwise throws an error. |
90b93790c544
Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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changeset
|
2747 |
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|
2748 |
642
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|
2749 <h4 heading><a name="Number.long_to_string" href="#Number.long_to_string"><code>Number.long_to_string (i, radix)</code></a></h4> |
566
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diff
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|
2750 <p> |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2751 Converts long value <code>i</code> to a string by calling <code><a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/7/docs/api/java/lang/Long.html#toString(long,%20int)">Long.toString</a></code>. |
90b93790c544
Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2752 |
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diff
changeset
|
2753 |
642
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|
2754 <h4 heading><a name="Number.type" href="#Number.type"><code>Number.type (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2755 <p> |
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|
2756 Returns a string for the numeric type of <code>x</code>. Possible return values include "<code>integer</code>", "<code>long</code>", "<code>double</code>", and "<code>float</code>". |
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diff
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|
2757 |
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diff
changeset
|
2758 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
changeset
|
2759 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2760 |
1327
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|
2761 <h3 heading><a name="math_lib" href="#math_lib">Mathematical Functions</a></h3> |
566
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|
2762 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
2763 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
2764 Include this library by: |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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565
diff
changeset
|
2765 |
90b93790c544
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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565
diff
changeset
|
2766 <pre> |
693
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diff
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|
2767 local Math = require "luan:Math.luan" |
566
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|
2768 </pre> |
371
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|
2769 |
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|
2770 <p> |
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|
2771 This library provides basic mathematical functions. |
566
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2772 It provides all its functions and constants inside the table <code>Math</code>. |
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diff
changeset
|
2773 |
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diff
changeset
|
2774 |
642
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diff
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|
2775 <h4 heading><a name="Math.abs" href="#Math.abs"><code>Math.abs (x)</code></a></h4> |
566
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diff
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|
2776 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
2777 <p> |
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diff
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|
2778 Returns the absolute value of <code>x</code>. |
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diff
changeset
|
2779 |
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diff
changeset
|
2780 |
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diff
changeset
|
2781 |
642
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|
2782 <h4 heading><a name="Math.acos" href="#Math.acos"><code>Math.acos (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2783 |
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|
2784 <p> |
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|
2785 Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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|
2786 |
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changeset
|
2787 |
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|
2788 |
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changeset
|
2789 |
642
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|
2790 <h4 heading><a name="Math.asin" href="#Math.asin"><code>Math.asin (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2791 |
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changeset
|
2792 <p> |
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|
2793 Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians). |
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|
2794 |
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diff
changeset
|
2795 |
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changeset
|
2796 |
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changeset
|
2797 |
642
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|
2798 <h4 heading><a name="Math.atan" href="#Math.atan"><code>Math.atan (y, x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2799 |
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|
2800 <p> |
371
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|
2801 Returns the arc tangent of <code>y/x</code> (in radians), |
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|
2802 but uses the signs of both parameters to find the |
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|
2803 quadrant of the result. |
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|
2804 (It also handles correctly the case of <code>x</code> being zero.) |
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|
2805 |
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|
2806 |
566
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changeset
|
2807 |
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2808 |
642
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2809 <h4 heading><a name="Math.ceil" href="#Math.ceil"><code>Math.ceil (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2810 |
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2811 <p> |
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|
2812 Returns the smallest integral value larger than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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2813 |
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|
2814 |
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|
2815 |
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|
2816 |
642
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2817 <h4 heading><a name="Math.cos" href="#Math.cos"><code>Math.cos (x)</code></a></h4> |
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2818 |
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|
2819 <p> |
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|
2820 Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
2821 |
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|
2822 |
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|
2823 |
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|
2824 |
642
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2825 <h4 heading><a name="Math.deg" href="#Math.deg"><code>Math.deg (x)</code></a></h4> |
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|
2826 |
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|
2827 <p> |
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|
2828 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from radians to degrees. |
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|
2829 |
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|
2830 |
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|
2831 |
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2832 |
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2833 <h4 heading><a name="Math.exp" href="#Math.exp"><code>Math.exp (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2834 |
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|
2835 <p> |
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2836 Returns the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em> |
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|
2837 (where <code>e</code> is the base of natural logarithms). |
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|
2838 |
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|
2839 |
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|
2840 |
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|
2841 |
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2842 <h4 heading><a name="Math.floor" href="#Math.floor"><code>Math.floor (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2843 |
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|
2844 <p> |
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|
2845 Returns the largest integral value smaller than or equal to <code>x</code>. |
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|
2846 |
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|
2847 |
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|
2848 |
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|
2849 |
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2850 <h4 heading><a name="Math.fmod" href="#Math.fmod"><code>Math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2851 |
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|
2852 <p> |
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|
2853 Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code> |
566
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2854 that rounds the quotient towards zero. |
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2855 |
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|
2856 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2857 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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|
2858 |
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2859 <h4 heading><a name="Math.huge" href="#Math.huge"><code>Math.huge</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2860 |
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|
2861 <p> |
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2862 A value larger than any other numerical value. |
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|
2863 |
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|
2864 |
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|
2865 |
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|
2866 |
642
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2867 <h4 heading><a name="Math.log" href="#Math.log"><code>Math.log (x [, base])</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2868 |
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|
2869 <p> |
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|
2870 Returns the logarithm of <code>x</code> in the given base. |
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|
2871 The default for <code>base</code> is <em>e</em> |
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|
2872 (so that the function returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>). |
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|
2873 |
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diff
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|
2874 |
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diff
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|
2875 |
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|
2876 |
642
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|
2877 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max" href="#Math.max"><code>Math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2878 |
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|
2879 <p> |
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|
2880 Returns the argument with the maximum value, |
566
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|
2881 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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diff
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|
2882 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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565
diff
changeset
|
2883 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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565
diff
changeset
|
2884 |
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Number and Math documentation and minor changes
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diff
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|
2885 |
642
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diff
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|
2886 <h4 heading><a name="Math.max_integer" href="#Math.max_integer"><code>Math.max_integer</code></a></h4> |
566
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2887 <p> |
371
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|
2888 An integer with the maximum value for an integer. |
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|
2889 |
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diff
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|
2890 |
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diff
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|
2891 |
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|
2892 |
642
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|
2893 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min" href="#Math.min"><code>Math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2894 |
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|
2895 <p> |
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|
2896 Returns the argument with the minimum value, |
566
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diff
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|
2897 according to the Lua operator <code><</code>. |
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diff
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|
2898 |
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565
diff
changeset
|
2899 |
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diff
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|
2900 |
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|
2901 |
642
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|
2902 <h4 heading><a name="Math.min_integer" href="#Math.min_integer"><code>Math.min_integer</code></a></h4> |
566
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|
2903 <p> |
371
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|
2904 An integer with the minimum value for an integer. |
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|
2905 |
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|
2906 |
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|
2907 |
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|
2908 |
642
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|
2909 <h4 heading><a name="Math.modf" href="#Math.modf"><code>Math.modf (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2910 |
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|
2911 <p> |
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|
2912 Returns the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>. |
566
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|
2913 |
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changeset
|
2914 |
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changeset
|
2915 |
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|
2916 |
642
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2917 <h4 heading><a name="Math.pi" href="#Math.pi"><code>Math.pi</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2918 |
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|
2919 <p> |
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|
2920 The value of <em>π</em>. |
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|
2921 |
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|
2922 |
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changeset
|
2923 |
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|
2924 |
642
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|
2925 <h4 heading><a name="Math.rad" href="#Math.rad"><code>Math.rad (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2926 |
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|
2927 <p> |
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|
2928 Converts the angle <code>x</code> from degrees to radians. |
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|
2929 |
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changeset
|
2930 |
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changeset
|
2931 |
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changeset
|
2932 |
642
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|
2933 <h4 heading><a name="Math.random" href="#Math.random"><code>Math.random ([m [, n])</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2934 |
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changeset
|
2935 |
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changeset
|
2936 <p> |
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|
2937 When called without arguments, |
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|
2938 returns a pseudo-random float with uniform distribution |
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|
2939 in the range <em>[0,1)</em>. |
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|
2940 When called with two integers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>, |
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2941 <code>Math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random integer |
371
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|
2942 with uniform distribution in the range <em>[m, n]</em>. |
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2943 (The value <em>m-n</em> cannot be negative and must fit in a Luan integer.) |
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2944 The call <code>Math.random(n)</code> is equivalent to <code>Math.random(1,n)</code>. |
371
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|
2945 |
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changeset
|
2946 |
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|
2947 <p> |
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|
2948 This function is an interface to the underling |
566
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|
2949 pseudo-random generator function provided by Java. |
371
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2950 No guarantees can be given for its statistical properties. |
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|
2951 |
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changeset
|
2952 |
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changeset
|
2953 |
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changeset
|
2954 |
642
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2955 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sin" href="#Math.sin"><code>Math.sin (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2956 |
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|
2957 <p> |
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2958 Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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2959 |
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|
2960 |
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|
2961 |
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2962 |
642
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629
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2963 <h4 heading><a name="Math.sqrt" href="#Math.sqrt"><code>Math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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|
2964 |
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|
2965 <p> |
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2966 Returns the square root of <code>x</code>. |
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|
2967 (You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.) |
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|
2968 |
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|
2969 |
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diff
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|
2970 |
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|
2971 |
642
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629
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2972 <h4 heading><a name="Math.tan" href="#Math.tan"><code>Math.tan (x)</code></a></h4> |
371
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2973 |
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2974 <p> |
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2975 Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians). |
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|
2976 |
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|
2977 |
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|
2978 |
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|
2979 |
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2980 |
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2981 |
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2982 |
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2983 |
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2984 <h2>6.8 – <a name="6.8">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2> |
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2985 |
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2986 <p> |
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2987 The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation. |
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2988 The first one uses implicit file handles; |
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2989 that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a |
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2990 default output file, |
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2991 and all input/output operations are over these default files. |
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2992 The second style uses explicit file handles. |
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2993 |
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|
2994 |
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2995 <p> |
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|
2996 When using implicit file handles, |
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|
2997 all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>. |
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2998 When using explicit file handles, |
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|
2999 the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file handle |
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3000 and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file handle. |
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|
3001 |
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|
3002 |
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|
3003 <p> |
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|
3004 The table <code>io</code> also provides |
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|
3005 three predefined file handles with their usual meanings from C: |
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|
3006 <a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>. |
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|
3007 The I/O library never closes these files. |
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|
3008 |
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|
3009 |
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3010 <p> |
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|
3011 Unless otherwise stated, |
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|
3012 all I/O functions return <b>nil</b> on failure |
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3013 (plus an error message as a second result and |
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|
3014 a system-dependent error code as a third result) |
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3015 and some value different from <b>nil</b> on success. |
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|
3016 On non-POSIX systems, |
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|
3017 the computation of the error message and error code |
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|
3018 in case of errors |
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|
3019 may be not thread safe, |
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|
3020 because they rely on the global C variable <code>errno</code>. |
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|
3021 |
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|
3022 |
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|
3023 <p> |
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|
3024 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3025 |
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|
3026 |
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|
3027 <p> |
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|
3028 Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>. |
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|
3029 Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file. |
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|
3030 |
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|
3031 |
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|
3032 |
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|
3033 |
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|
3034 <p> |
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|
3035 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3036 |
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|
3037 |
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|
3038 <p> |
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|
3039 Equivalent to <code>io.output():flush()</code>. |
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|
3040 |
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|
3041 |
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|
3042 |
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|
3043 |
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|
3044 <p> |
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|
3045 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3046 |
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|
3047 |
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|
3048 <p> |
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|
3049 When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode), |
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|
3050 and sets its handle as the default input file. |
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|
3051 When called with a file handle, |
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|
3052 it simply sets this file handle as the default input file. |
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3053 When called without parameters, |
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|
3054 it returns the current default input file. |
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|
3055 |
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|
3056 |
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|
3057 <p> |
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|
3058 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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|
3059 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3060 |
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|
3061 |
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|
3062 |
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|
3063 |
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|
3064 <p> |
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|
3065 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename ···])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3066 |
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|
3067 |
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|
3068 <p> |
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3069 Opens the given file name in read mode |
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3070 and returns an iterator function that |
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|
3071 works like <code>file:lines(···)</code> over the opened file. |
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|
3072 When the iterator function detects the end of file, |
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|
3073 it returns no values (to finish the loop) and automatically closes the file. |
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|
3074 |
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|
3075 |
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|
3076 <p> |
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3077 The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent |
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|
3078 to <code>io.input():lines("*l")</code>; |
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|
3079 that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file. |
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|
3080 In this case it does not close the file when the loop ends. |
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3081 |
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|
3082 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3083 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3084 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3085 instead of returning an error code. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3086 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3087 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3088 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3089 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3090 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3091 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3092 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3093 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3094 <p> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3095 This function opens a file, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3096 in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3097 It returns a new file handle, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3098 or, in case of errors, <b>nil</b> plus an error message. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3099 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3100 |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3101 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3102 The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following: |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3103 |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3104 <ul> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3105 <li><b>"<code>r</code>": </b> read mode (the default);</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3106 <li><b>"<code>w</code>": </b> write mode;</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3107 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> append mode;</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3108 <li><b>"<code>r+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3109 <li><b>"<code>w+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3110 <li><b>"<code>a+</code>": </b> append update mode, previous data is preserved, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
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|
3111 writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3112 </ul><p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3113 The <code>mode</code> string can also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3114 which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3115 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3116 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3117 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3118 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3119 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3120 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3121 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3122 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3123 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3124 Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file. |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3125 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3126 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3127 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3128 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3129 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3130 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3131 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3132 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3133 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3134 This function is system dependent and is not available |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3135 on all platforms. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3136 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3137 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3138 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3139 Starts program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3140 a file handle that you can use to read data from this program |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3141 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default) |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3142 or to write data to this program |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3143 (if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>). |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3144 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3145 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3146 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3147 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3148 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3149 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3150 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3151 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3152 <p> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3153 Equivalent to <code>io.input():read(···)</code>. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3154 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3155 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3156 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3157 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3158 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3159 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3160 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3161 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3162 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3163 Returns a handle for a temporary file. |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3164 This file is opened in update mode |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3165 and it is automatically removed when the program ends. |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3166 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3167 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3168 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3169 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3170 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3171 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3172 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3173 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3174 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3175 Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3176 Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3177 <code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle, |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3178 or <b>nil</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle. |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3179 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3180 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3181 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3182 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3183 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3184 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3> |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3185 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3186 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3187 <p> |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3188 Equivalent to <code>io.output():write(···)</code>. |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3189 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3190 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3191 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3192 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3193 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3194 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3> |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3195 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3196 |
e01cddba3433
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3197 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3198 Closes <code>file</code>. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3199 Note that files are automatically closed when |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3200 their handles are garbage collected, |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3201 but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen. |
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add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3202 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3203 |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3204 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3205 When closing a file handle created with <a href="#pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen</code></a>, |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3206 <a href="#pdf-file:close"><code>file:close</code></a> returns the same values |
e01cddba3433
add manual.html as copy of Lua 5.3 Reference Manual
Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3207 returned by <a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a>. |
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|
3208 |
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diff
changeset
|
3209 |
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diff
changeset
|
3210 |
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diff
changeset
|
3211 |
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diff
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|
3212 <p> |
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|
3213 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3214 |
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diff
changeset
|
3215 |
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|
3216 <p> |
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|
3217 Saves any written data to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3218 |
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diff
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|
3219 |
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diff
changeset
|
3220 |
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diff
changeset
|
3221 |
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diff
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|
3222 <p> |
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|
3223 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3224 |
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|
3225 |
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diff
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|
3226 <p> |
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|
3227 Returns an iterator function that, |
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diff
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|
3228 each time it is called, |
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|
3229 reads the file according to the given formats. |
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|
3230 When no format is given, |
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3231 uses "<code>l</code>" as a default. |
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3232 As an example, the construction |
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|
3233 |
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|
3234 <pre> |
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|
3235 for c in file:lines(1) do <em>body</em> end |
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|
3236 </pre><p> |
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|
3237 will iterate over all characters of the file, |
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|
3238 starting at the current position. |
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|
3239 Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file |
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|
3240 when the loop ends. |
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|
3241 |
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diff
changeset
|
3242 |
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|
3243 <p> |
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|
3244 In case of errors this function raises the error, |
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|
3245 instead of returning an error code. |
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|
3246 |
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changeset
|
3247 |
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diff
changeset
|
3248 |
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diff
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|
3249 |
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|
3250 <p> |
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|
3251 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3252 |
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|
3253 |
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|
3254 <p> |
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|
3255 Reads the file <code>file</code>, |
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|
3256 according to the given formats, which specify what to read. |
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|
3257 For each format, |
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|
3258 the function returns a string or a number with the characters read, |
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|
3259 or <b>nil</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format. |
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|
3260 (In this latter case, |
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diff
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|
3261 the function does not read subsequent formats.) |
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|
3262 When called without formats, |
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|
3263 it uses a default format that reads the next line |
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|
3264 (see below). |
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|
3265 |
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|
3266 |
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|
3267 <p> |
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|
3268 The available formats are |
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|
3269 |
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|
3270 <ul> |
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diff
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|
3271 |
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|
3272 <li><b>"<code>n</code>": </b> |
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|
3273 reads a numeral and returns it as a float or an integer, |
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diff
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|
3274 following the lexical conventions of Lua. |
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diff
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|
3275 (The numeral may have leading spaces and a sign.) |
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parents:
diff
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|
3276 This format always reads the longest input sequence that |
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parents:
diff
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|
3277 is a valid prefix for a number; |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3278 if that prefix does not form a valid number |
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diff
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|
3279 (e.g., an empty string, "<code>0x</code>", or "<code>3.4e-</code>"), |
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diff
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|
3280 it is discarded and the function returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3281 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3282 |
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diff
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|
3283 <li><b>"<code>i</code>": </b> |
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|
3284 reads an integral number and returns it as an integer. |
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diff
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|
3285 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3286 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3287 <li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> |
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|
3288 reads the whole file, starting at the current position. |
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parents:
diff
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|
3289 On end of file, it returns the empty string. |
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diff
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|
3290 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3291 |
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diff
changeset
|
3292 <li><b>"<code>l</code>": </b> |
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diff
changeset
|
3293 reads the next line skipping the end of line, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3294 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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diff
changeset
|
3295 This is the default format. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3296 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3297 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3298 <li><b>"<code>L</code>": </b> |
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diff
changeset
|
3299 reads the next line keeping the end-of-line character (if present), |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3300 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3301 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
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|
3302 |
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diff
changeset
|
3303 <li><b><em>number</em>: </b> |
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diff
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|
3304 reads a string with up to this number of bytes, |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3305 returning <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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diff
changeset
|
3306 If <code>number</code> is zero, |
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parents:
diff
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|
3307 it reads nothing and returns an empty string, |
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diff
changeset
|
3308 or <b>nil</b> on end of file. |
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diff
changeset
|
3309 </li> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3310 |
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diff
changeset
|
3311 </ul><p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3312 The formats "<code>l</code>" and "<code>L</code>" should be used only for text files. |
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changeset
|
3313 |
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diff
changeset
|
3314 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3315 |
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diff
changeset
|
3316 |
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changeset
|
3317 <p> |
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|
3318 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence [, offset]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3319 |
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diff
changeset
|
3320 |
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diff
changeset
|
3321 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3322 Sets and gets the file position, |
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diff
changeset
|
3323 measured from the beginning of the file, |
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diff
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|
3324 to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base |
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|
3325 specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows: |
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diff
changeset
|
3326 |
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diff
changeset
|
3327 <ul> |
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changeset
|
3328 <li><b>"<code>set</code>": </b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li> |
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changeset
|
3329 <li><b>"<code>cur</code>": </b> base is current position;</li> |
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diff
changeset
|
3330 <li><b>"<code>end</code>": </b> base is end of file;</li> |
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changeset
|
3331 </ul><p> |
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3332 In case of success, <code>seek</code> returns the final file position, |
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|
3333 measured in bytes from the beginning of the file. |
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|
3334 If <code>seek</code> fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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3335 plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3336 |
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|
3337 |
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|
3338 <p> |
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|
3339 The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>, |
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3340 and for <code>offset</code> is 0. |
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|
3341 Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current |
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3342 file position, without changing it; |
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3343 the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3344 beginning of the file (and returns 0); |
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|
3345 and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the |
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|
3346 end of the file, and returns its size. |
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|
3347 |
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|
3348 |
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|
3349 |
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|
3350 |
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|
3351 <p> |
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|
3352 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3> |
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3353 |
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|
3354 |
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3355 <p> |
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3356 Sets the buffering mode for an output file. |
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3357 There are three available modes: |
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|
3358 |
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|
3359 <ul> |
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|
3360 |
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3361 <li><b>"<code>no</code>": </b> |
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3362 no buffering; the result of any output operation appears immediately. |
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3363 </li> |
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|
3364 |
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|
3365 <li><b>"<code>full</code>": </b> |
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|
3366 full buffering; output operation is performed only |
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|
3367 when the buffer is full or when |
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|
3368 you explicitly <code>flush</code> the file (see <a href="#pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush</code></a>). |
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3369 </li> |
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|
3370 |
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|
3371 <li><b>"<code>line</code>": </b> |
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|
3372 line buffering; output is buffered until a newline is output |
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|
3373 or there is any input from some special files |
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|
3374 (such as a terminal device). |
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|
3375 </li> |
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|
3376 |
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|
3377 </ul><p> |
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|
3378 For the last two cases, <code>size</code> |
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|
3379 specifies the size of the buffer, in bytes. |
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|
3380 The default is an appropriate size. |
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|
3381 |
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|
3382 |
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|
3383 |
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|
3384 |
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|
3385 <p> |
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|
3386 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3387 |
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|
3388 |
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|
3389 <p> |
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|
3390 Writes the value of each of its arguments to <code>file</code>. |
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|
3391 The arguments must be strings or numbers. |
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|
3392 |
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|
3393 |
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|
3394 <p> |
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|
3395 In case of success, this function returns <code>file</code>. |
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|
3396 Otherwise it returns <b>nil</b> plus a string describing the error. |
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|
3397 |
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diff
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|
3398 |
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diff
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|
3399 |
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diff
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|
3400 |
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diff
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|
3401 |
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|
3402 |
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|
3403 |
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|
3404 <h2>6.9 – <a name="6.9">Operating System Facilities</a></h2> |
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|
3405 |
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|
3406 <p> |
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|
3407 This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>. |
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|
3408 |
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|
3409 |
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|
3410 <p> |
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|
3411 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3412 |
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diff
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|
3413 |
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|
3414 <p> |
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|
3415 Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time |
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|
3416 used by the program. |
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|
3417 |
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diff
changeset
|
3418 |
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diff
changeset
|
3419 |
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diff
changeset
|
3420 |
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|
3421 <p> |
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|
3422 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3423 |
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|
3424 |
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|
3425 <p> |
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|
3426 Returns a string or a table containing date and time, |
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|
3427 formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>. |
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|
3428 |
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|
3429 |
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|
3430 <p> |
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|
3431 If the <code>time</code> argument is present, |
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|
3432 this is the time to be formatted |
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|
3433 (see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value). |
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|
3434 Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time. |
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|
3435 |
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|
3436 |
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|
3437 <p> |
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|
3438 If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>', |
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|
3439 then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time. |
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|
3440 After this optional character, |
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|
3441 if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>", |
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|
3442 then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields: |
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|
3443 <code>year</code> (four digits), <code>month</code> (1–12), <code>day</code> (1–31), |
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|
3444 <code>hour</code> (0–23), <code>min</code> (0–59), <code>sec</code> (0–61), |
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|
3445 <code>wday</code> (weekday, Sunday is 1), |
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3446 <code>yday</code> (day of the year), |
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|
3447 and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean). |
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3448 This last field may be absent |
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|
3449 if the information is not available. |
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|
3450 |
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|
3451 |
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|
3452 <p> |
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|
3453 If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>", |
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|
3454 then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string, |
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changeset
|
3455 formatted according to the same rules as the ISO C function <code>strftime</code>. |
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|
3456 |
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|
3457 |
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|
3458 <p> |
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|
3459 When called without arguments, |
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|
3460 <code>date</code> returns a reasonable date and time representation that depends on |
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|
3461 the host system and on the current locale |
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|
3462 (that is, <code>os.date()</code> is equivalent to <code>os.date("%c")</code>). |
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|
3463 |
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|
3464 |
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diff
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|
3465 <p> |
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|
3466 On non-POSIX systems, |
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|
3467 this function may be not thread safe |
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|
3468 because of its reliance on C function <code>gmtime</code> and C function <code>localtime</code>. |
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|
3469 |
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diff
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|
3470 |
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diff
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|
3471 |
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diff
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|
3472 |
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diff
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|
3473 <p> |
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|
3474 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3475 |
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diff
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|
3476 |
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diff
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|
3477 <p> |
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|
3478 Returns the difference, in seconds, |
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diff
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|
3479 from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code> |
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|
3480 (where the times are values returned by <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a>). |
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|
3481 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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|
3482 this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>. |
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|
3483 |
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diff
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|
3484 |
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diff
changeset
|
3485 |
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diff
changeset
|
3486 |
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|
3487 <p> |
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|
3488 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3489 |
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diff
changeset
|
3490 |
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diff
changeset
|
3491 <p> |
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diff
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|
3492 This function is equivalent to the ISO C function <code>system</code>. |
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diff
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|
3493 It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell. |
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|
3494 Its first result is <b>true</b> |
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|
3495 if the command terminated successfully, |
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diff
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|
3496 or <b>nil</b> otherwise. |
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|
3497 After this first result |
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diff
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|
3498 the function returns a string plus a number, |
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diff
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|
3499 as follows: |
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diff
changeset
|
3500 |
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diff
changeset
|
3501 <ul> |
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diff
changeset
|
3502 |
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diff
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|
3503 <li><b>"<code>exit</code>": </b> |
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|
3504 the command terminated normally; |
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diff
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|
3505 the following number is the exit status of the command. |
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|
3506 </li> |
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diff
changeset
|
3507 |
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|
3508 <li><b>"<code>signal</code>": </b> |
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|
3509 the command was terminated by a signal; |
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diff
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|
3510 the following number is the signal that terminated the command. |
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|
3511 </li> |
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diff
changeset
|
3512 |
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diff
changeset
|
3513 </ul> |
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diff
changeset
|
3514 |
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diff
changeset
|
3515 <p> |
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diff
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|
3516 When called without a <code>command</code>, |
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diff
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|
3517 <code>os.execute</code> returns a boolean that is true if a shell is available. |
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|
3518 |
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diff
changeset
|
3519 |
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diff
changeset
|
3520 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3521 |
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changeset
|
3522 <p> |
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|
3523 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code [, close]])</code></a></h3> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3524 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3525 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3526 <p> |
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diff
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|
3527 Calls the ISO C function <code>exit</code> to terminate the host program. |
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diff
changeset
|
3528 If <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>, |
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diff
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|
3529 the returned status is <code>EXIT_SUCCESS</code>; |
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diff
changeset
|
3530 if <code>code</code> is <b>false</b>, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3531 the returned status is <code>EXIT_FAILURE</code>; |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3532 if <code>code</code> is a number, |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3533 the returned status is this number. |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3534 The default value for <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>. |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3535 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3536 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3537 <p> |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3538 If the optional second argument <code>close</code> is true, |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3539 closes the Lua state before exiting. |
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diff
changeset
|
3540 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3541 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3542 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
parents:
diff
changeset
|
3543 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3544 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3545 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3546 |
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diff
changeset
|
3547 |
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changeset
|
3548 <p> |
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changeset
|
3549 Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>, |
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diff
changeset
|
3550 or <b>nil</b> if the variable is not defined. |
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changeset
|
3551 |
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diff
changeset
|
3552 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3553 |
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Franklin Schmidt <fschmidt@gmail.com>
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diff
changeset
|
3554 |
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diff
changeset
|
3555 <p> |
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changeset
|
3556 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3557 |
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diff
changeset
|
3558 |
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changeset
|
3559 <p> |
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|
3560 Deletes the file (or empty directory, on POSIX systems) |
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|
3561 with the given name. |
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diff
changeset
|
3562 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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diff
changeset
|
3563 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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changeset
|
3564 |
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diff
changeset
|
3565 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3566 |
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diff
changeset
|
3567 |
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changeset
|
3568 <p> |
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|
3569 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3570 |
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diff
changeset
|
3571 |
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diff
changeset
|
3572 <p> |
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diff
changeset
|
3573 Renames file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>. |
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|
3574 If this function fails, it returns <b>nil</b>, |
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diff
changeset
|
3575 plus a string describing the error and the error code. |
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changeset
|
3576 |
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parents:
diff
changeset
|
3577 |
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diff
changeset
|
3578 |
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diff
changeset
|
3579 |
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diff
changeset
|
3580 <p> |
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3581 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3582 |
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|
3583 |
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3584 <p> |
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3585 Sets the current locale of the program. |
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3586 <code>locale</code> is a system-dependent string specifying a locale; |
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3587 <code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change: |
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3588 <code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>, |
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3589 <code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>; |
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3590 the default category is <code>"all"</code>. |
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3591 The function returns the name of the new locale, |
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3592 or <b>nil</b> if the request cannot be honored. |
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|
3593 |
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|
3594 |
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|
3595 <p> |
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3596 If <code>locale</code> is the empty string, |
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3597 the current locale is set to an implementation-defined native locale. |
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3598 If <code>locale</code> is the string "<code>C</code>", |
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3599 the current locale is set to the standard C locale. |
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|
3600 |
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|
3601 |
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|
3602 <p> |
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3603 When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument, |
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3604 this function only returns the name of the current locale |
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3605 for the given category. |
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|
3606 |
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|
3607 |
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|
3608 <p> |
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3609 This function may be not thread safe |
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3610 because of its reliance on C function <code>setlocale</code>. |
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|
3611 |
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|
3612 |
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|
3613 |
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|
3614 |
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3615 <p> |
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|
3616 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3617 |
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|
3618 |
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|
3619 <p> |
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|
3620 Returns the current time when called without arguments, |
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3621 or a time representing the date and time specified by the given table. |
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|
3622 This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>, |
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3623 and may have fields |
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|
3624 <code>hour</code> (default is 12), |
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|
3625 <code>min</code> (default is 0), |
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|
3626 <code>sec</code> (default is 0), |
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3627 and <code>isdst</code> (default is <b>nil</b>). |
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|
3628 For a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function. |
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|
3629 |
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|
3630 |
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|
3631 <p> |
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|
3632 The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system. |
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|
3633 In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems, |
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|
3634 this number counts the number |
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|
3635 of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch"). |
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|
3636 In other systems, the meaning is not specified, |
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|
3637 and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to |
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|
3638 <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime</code></a>. |
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|
3639 |
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|
3640 |
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|
3641 |
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|
3642 |
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|
3643 <p> |
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|
3644 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3> |
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|
3645 |
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|
3646 |
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|
3647 <p> |
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|
3648 Returns a string with a file name that can |
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|
3649 be used for a temporary file. |
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|
3650 The file must be explicitly opened before its use |
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|
3651 and explicitly removed when no longer needed. |
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|
3652 |
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|
3653 |
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|
3654 <p> |
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|
3655 On POSIX systems, |
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|
3656 this function also creates a file with that name, |
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|
3657 to avoid security risks. |
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|
3658 (Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions |
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|
3659 in the time between getting the name and creating the file.) |
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|
3660 You still have to open the file to use it |
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|
3661 and to remove it (even if you do not use it). |
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|
3662 |
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|
3663 |
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|
3664 <p> |
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|
3665 When possible, |
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|
3666 you may prefer to use <a href="#pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile</code></a>, |
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|
3667 which automatically removes the file when the program ends. |
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|
3668 |
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diff
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|
3669 |
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diff
changeset
|
3670 |
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|
3671 |
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diff
changeset
|
3672 |
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|
3673 |
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|
3674 |
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|
3675 <h2>6.10 – <a name="6.10">The Debug Library</a></h2> |
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|
3676 |
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|
3677 <p> |
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|
3678 This library provides |
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|
3679 the functionality of the debug interface (<a href="#4.9">§4.9</a>) to Lua programs. |
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|
3680 You should exert care when using this library. |
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|
3681 Several of its functions |
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|
3682 violate basic assumptions about Lua code |
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|
3683 (e.g., that variables local to a function |
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|
3684 cannot be accessed from outside; |
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|
3685 that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code; |
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|
3686 that Lua programs do not crash) |
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|
3687 and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code. |
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|
3688 Moreover, some functions in this library may be slow. |
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|
3689 |
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|
3690 |
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|
3691 <p> |
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|
3692 All functions in this library are provided |
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|
3693 inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table. |
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3694 All functions that operate over a thread |
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|
3695 have an optional first argument which is the |
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|
3696 thread to operate over. |
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|
3697 The default is always the current thread. |
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|
3698 |
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|
3699 |
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|
3700 <p> |
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|
3701 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3> |
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3702 |
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|
3703 |
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|
3704 <p> |
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3705 Enters an interactive mode with the user, |
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3706 running each string that the user enters. |
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|
3707 Using simple commands and other debug facilities, |
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|
3708 the user can inspect global and local variables, |
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|
3709 change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on. |
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3710 A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function, |
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|
3711 so that the caller continues its execution. |
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|
3712 |
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|
3713 |
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|
3714 <p> |
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3715 Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested |
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3716 within any function and so have no direct access to local variables. |
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|
3717 |
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|
3718 |
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|
3719 |
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|
3720 |
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|
3721 <p> |
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|
3722 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3723 |
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|
3724 |
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|
3725 <p> |
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3726 Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values: |
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|
3727 the current hook function, the current hook mask, |
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3728 and the current hook count |
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|
3729 (as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function). |
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|
3730 |
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|
3731 |
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|
3732 |
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|
3733 |
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|
3734 <p> |
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|
3735 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] f [, what])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3736 |
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|
3737 |
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|
3738 <p> |
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|
3739 Returns a table with information about a function. |
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|
3740 You can give the function directly |
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3741 or you can give a number as the value of <code>f</code>, |
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|
3742 which means the function running at level <code>f</code> of the call stack |
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|
3743 of the given thread: |
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|
3744 level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself); |
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|
3745 level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code> |
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|
3746 (except for tail calls, which do not count on the stack); |
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|
3747 and so on. |
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|
3748 If <code>f</code> is a number larger than the number of active functions, |
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|
3749 then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3750 |
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diff
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|
3751 |
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|
3752 <p> |
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|
3753 The returned table can contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>, |
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|
3754 with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in. |
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|
3755 The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available, |
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3756 except the table of valid lines. |
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|
3757 If present, |
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|
3758 the option '<code>f</code>' |
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|
3759 adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself. |
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|
3760 If present, |
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|
3761 the option '<code>L</code>' |
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|
3762 adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of |
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|
3763 valid lines. |
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diff
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|
3764 |
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|
3765 |
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|
3766 <p> |
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|
3767 For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns |
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|
3768 a table with a name for the current function, |
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|
3769 if a reasonable name can be found, |
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diff
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|
3770 and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code> |
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|
3771 returns a table with all available information |
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|
3772 about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function. |
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|
3773 |
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|
3774 |
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|
3775 |
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|
3776 |
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|
3777 <p> |
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|
3778 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] f, local)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3779 |
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diff
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|
3780 |
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|
3781 <p> |
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|
3782 This function returns the name and the value of the local variable |
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|
3783 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>f</code> of the stack. |
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|
3784 This function accesses not only explicit local variables, |
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|
3785 but also parameters, temporaries, etc. |
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|
3786 |
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diff
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|
3787 |
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|
3788 <p> |
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|
3789 The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on, |
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|
3790 following the order that they are declared in the code, |
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changeset
|
3791 counting only the variables that are active |
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|
3792 in the current scope of the function. |
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diff
changeset
|
3793 Negative indices refer to vararg parameters; |
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|
3794 -1 is the first vararg parameter. |
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changeset
|
3795 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no variable with the given index, |
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|
3796 and raises an error when called with a level out of range. |
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|
3797 (You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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|
3798 |
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|
3799 |
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|
3800 <p> |
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|
3801 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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|
3802 represent variables with no known names |
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|
3803 (internal variables such as loop control variables, |
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|
3804 and variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3805 |
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|
3806 |
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|
3807 <p> |
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|
3808 The parameter <code>f</code> may also be a function. |
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|
3809 In that case, <code>getlocal</code> returns only the name of function parameters. |
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|
3810 |
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changeset
|
3811 |
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|
3812 |
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changeset
|
3813 |
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|
3814 <p> |
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|
3815 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3816 |
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|
3817 |
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|
3818 <p> |
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|
3819 Returns the metatable of the given <code>value</code> |
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3820 or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable. |
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|
3821 |
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diff
changeset
|
3822 |
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changeset
|
3823 |
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changeset
|
3824 |
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changeset
|
3825 <p> |
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|
3826 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3> |
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changeset
|
3827 |
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|
3828 |
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|
3829 <p> |
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|
3830 Returns the registry table (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>). |
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|
3831 |
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|
3832 |
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diff
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|
3833 |
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|
3834 |
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3835 <p> |
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3836 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (f, up)</code></a></h3> |
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3837 |
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|
3838 |
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|
3839 <p> |
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3840 This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue |
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3841 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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3842 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue with the given index. |
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3843 |
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|
3844 |
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|
3845 <p> |
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3846 Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis) |
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3847 represent variables with no known names |
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3848 (variables from chunks saved without debug information). |
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|
3849 |
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|
3850 |
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|
3851 |
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|
3852 |
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3853 <p> |
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3854 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getuservalue"><code>debug.getuservalue (u)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3855 |
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|
3856 |
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3857 <p> |
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3858 Returns the Lua value associated to <code>u</code>. |
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3859 If <code>u</code> is not a userdata, |
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3860 returns <b>nil</b>. |
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|
3861 |
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diff
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|
3862 |
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diff
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|
3863 |
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|
3864 |
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|
3865 <p> |
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|
3866 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3> |
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|
3867 |
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|
3868 |
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3869 <p> |
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|
3870 Sets the given function as a hook. |
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|
3871 The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe |
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|
3872 when the hook will be called. |
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|
3873 The string mask may have any combination of the following characters, |
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|
3874 with the given meaning: |
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|
3875 |
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|
3876 <ul> |
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|
3877 <li><b>'<code>c</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li> |
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|
3878 <li><b>'<code>r</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li> |
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3879 <li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li> |
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3880 </ul><p> |
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|
3881 Moreover, |
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|
3882 with a <code>count</code> different from zero, |
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|
3883 the hook is called also after every <code>count</code> instructions. |
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|
3884 |
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|
3885 |
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|
3886 <p> |
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|
3887 When called without arguments, |
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|
3888 <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook. |
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|
3889 |
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|
3890 |
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|
3891 <p> |
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|
3892 When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string |
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|
3893 describing the event that has triggered its call: |
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|
3894 <code>"call"</code> (or <code>"tail call"</code>), |
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3895 <code>"return"</code>, |
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3896 <code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>. |
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3897 For line events, |
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3898 the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter. |
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|
3899 Inside a hook, |
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3900 you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about |
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3901 the running function |
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3902 (level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function, |
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|
3903 and level 1 is the hook function). |
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|
3904 |
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|
3905 |
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|
3906 |
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|
3907 |
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|
3908 <p> |
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3909 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3910 |
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|
3911 |
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3912 <p> |
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3913 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable |
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|
3914 with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack. |
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3915 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no local |
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3916 variable with the given index, |
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3917 and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range. |
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3918 (You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.) |
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3919 Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable. |
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|
3920 |
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|
3921 |
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3922 <p> |
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3923 See <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for more information about |
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3924 variable indices and names. |
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|
3925 |
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|
3926 |
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|
3927 |
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|
3928 |
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3929 <p> |
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3930 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (value, table)</code></a></h3> |
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3931 |
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|
3932 |
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3933 <p> |
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3934 Sets the metatable for the given <code>value</code> to the given <code>table</code> |
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3935 (which can be <b>nil</b>). |
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3936 Returns <code>value</code>. |
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3937 |
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|
3938 |
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|
3939 |
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|
3940 |
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3941 <p> |
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3942 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (f, up, value)</code></a></h3> |
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3943 |
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|
3944 |
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3945 <p> |
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|
3946 This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue |
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|
3947 with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>. |
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3948 The function returns <b>nil</b> if there is no upvalue |
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3949 with the given index. |
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|
3950 Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue. |
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|
3951 |
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diff
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|
3952 |
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diff
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|
3953 |
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|
3954 |
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|
3955 <p> |
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3956 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setuservalue"><code>debug.setuservalue (udata, value)</code></a></h3> |
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3957 |
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|
3958 |
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|
3959 <p> |
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3960 Sets the given <code>value</code> as |
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3961 the Lua value associated to the given <code>udata</code>. |
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3962 <code>udata</code> must be a full userdata. |
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|
3963 |
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|
3964 |
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|
3965 <p> |
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|
3966 Returns <code>udata</code>. |
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|
3967 |
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|
3968 |
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|
3969 |
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|
3970 |
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3971 <p> |
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3972 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]])</code></a></h3> |
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3973 |
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|
3974 |
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3975 <p> |
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3976 If <code>message</code> is present but is neither a string nor <b>nil</b>, |
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3977 this function returns <code>message</code> without further processing. |
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3978 Otherwise, |
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3979 it returns a string with a traceback of the call stack. |
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3980 The optional <code>message</code> string is appended |
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3981 at the beginning of the traceback. |
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3982 An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level |
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3983 to start the traceback |
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|
3984 (default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>). |
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|
3985 |
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|
3986 |
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|
3987 |
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|
3988 |
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|
3989 <p> |
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3990 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvalueid"><code>debug.upvalueid (f, n)</code></a></h3> |
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|
3991 |
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|
3992 |
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|
3993 <p> |
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3994 Returns a unique identifier (as a light userdata) |
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|
3995 for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code> |
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|
3996 from the given function. |
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|
3997 |
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|
3998 |
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|
3999 <p> |
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|
4000 These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different |
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|
4001 closures share upvalues. |
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|
4002 Lua closures that share an upvalue |
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|
4003 (that is, that access a same external local variable) |
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|
4004 will return identical ids for those upvalue indices. |
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|
4005 |
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|
4006 |
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|
4007 |
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|
4008 |
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|
4009 <p> |
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|
4010 <hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvaluejoin"><code>debug.upvaluejoin (f1, n1, f2, n2)</code></a></h3> |
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|
4011 |
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|
4012 |
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|
4013 <p> |
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4014 Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f1</code> |
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|
4015 refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f2</code>. |
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|
4016 |
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|
4017 |
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|
4018 |
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|
4019 |
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|
4020 |
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|
4021 |
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|
4022 |
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|
4023 <h1>7 – <a name="7">Lua Standalone</a></h1> |
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|
4024 |
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|
4025 <p> |
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|
4026 Although Lua has been designed as an extension language, |
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|
4027 to be embedded in a host C program, |
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|
4028 it is also frequently used as a standalone language. |
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|
4029 An interpreter for Lua as a standalone language, |
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|
4030 called simply <code>lua</code>, |
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|
4031 is provided with the standard distribution. |
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|
4032 The standalone interpreter includes |
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4033 all standard libraries, including the debug library. |
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|
4034 Its usage is: |
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|
4035 |
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|
4036 <pre> |
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|
4037 lua [options] [script [args]] |
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|
4038 </pre><p> |
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|
4039 The options are: |
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|
4040 |
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|
4041 <ul> |
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|
4042 <li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>: </b> executes string <em>stat</em>;</li> |
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|
4043 <li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>: </b> "requires" <em>mod</em>;</li> |
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|
4044 <li><b><code>-i</code>: </b> enters interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li> |
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|
4045 <li><b><code>-v</code>: </b> prints version information;</li> |
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|
4046 <li><b><code>-E</code>: </b> ignores environment variables;</li> |
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|
4047 <li><b><code>--</code>: </b> stops handling options;</li> |
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|
4048 <li><b><code>-</code>: </b> executes <code>stdin</code> as a file and stops handling options.</li> |
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|
4049 </ul><p> |
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|
4050 After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>. |
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|
4051 When called without arguments, |
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|
4052 <code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code> |
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|
4053 when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal, |
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|
4054 and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise. |
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|
4055 |
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|
4056 |
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|
4057 <p> |
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|
4058 When called without option <code>-E</code>, |
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|
4059 the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT_5_3"><code>LUA_INIT_5_3</code></a> |
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|
4060 (or <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a> if the versioned name is not defined) |
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4061 before running any argument. |
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|
4062 If the variable content has the format <code>@<em>filename</em></code>, |
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|
4063 then <code>lua</code> executes the file. |
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|
4064 Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself. |
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|
4065 |
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|
4066 |
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|
4067 <p> |
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|
4068 When called with option <code>-E</code>, |
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|
4069 besides ignoring <code>LUA_INIT</code>, |
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|
4070 Lua also ignores |
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|
4071 the values of <code>LUA_PATH</code> and <code>LUA_CPATH</code>, |
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|
4072 setting the values of |
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4073 <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> |
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4074 with the default paths defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>. |
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4075 |
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4076 |
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4077 <p> |
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4078 All options are handled in order, except <code>-i</code> and <code>-E</code>. |
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4079 For instance, an invocation like |
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4080 |
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4081 <pre> |
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4082 $ lua -e'a=1' -e 'print(a)' script.lua |
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4083 </pre><p> |
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4084 will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then print the value of <code>a</code>, |
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4085 and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments. |
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4086 (Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.) |
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4087 |
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4088 |
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4089 <p> |
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4090 Before running any code, |
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4091 <code>lua</code> collects all command-line arguments |
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4092 in a global table called <code>arg</code>. |
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4093 The script name goes to index 0, |
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4094 the first argument after the script name goes to index 1, |
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4095 and so on. |
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4096 Any arguments before the script name |
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4097 (that is, the interpreter name plus its options) |
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4098 go to negative indices. |
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4099 For instance, in the call |
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4100 |
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4101 <pre> |
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4102 $ lua -la b.lua t1 t2 |
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4103 </pre><p> |
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4104 the table is like this: |
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4105 |
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4106 <pre> |
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4107 arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la", |
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4108 [0] = "b.lua", |
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4109 [1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" } |
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4110 </pre><p> |
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4111 If there is no script in the call, |
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4112 the interpreter name goes to index 0, |
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4113 followed by the other arguments. |
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4114 For instance, the call |
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4115 |
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4116 <pre> |
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4117 $ lua -e "print(arg[1])" |
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4118 </pre><p> |
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4119 will print "<code>-e</code>". |
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4120 If there is a script, |
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4121 the script is called with parameters |
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4122 <code>arg[1]</code>, ···, <code>arg[#arg]</code>. |
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4123 (Like all chunks in Lua, |
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4124 the script is compiled as a vararg function.) |
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4125 |
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4126 |
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4127 <p> |
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4128 In interactive mode, |
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4129 Lua repeatedly prompts and waits for a line. |
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4130 After reading a line, |
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4131 Lua first try to interpret the line as an expression. |
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4132 If it succeeds, it prints its value. |
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4133 Otherwise, it interprets the line as a statement. |
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4134 If you write an incomplete statement, |
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4135 the interpreter waits for its completion |
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4136 by issuing a different prompt. |
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4137 |
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|
4138 |
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4139 <p> |
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4140 In case of unprotected errors in the script, |
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4141 the interpreter reports the error to the standard error stream. |
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4142 If the error object is not a string but |
429
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4143 has a metamethod <code>__to_string</code>, |
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4144 the interpreter calls this metamethod to produce the final message. |
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4145 Otherwise, the interpreter converts the error object to a string |
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4146 and adds a stack traceback to it. |
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|
4147 |
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4148 |
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|
4149 <p> |
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4150 When finishing normally, |
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4151 the interpreter closes its main Lua state |
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|
4152 (see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>). |
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4153 The script can avoid this step by |
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4154 calling <a href="#pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit</code></a> to terminate. |
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|
4155 |
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|
4156 |
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4157 <p> |
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4158 To allow the use of Lua as a |
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|
4159 script interpreter in Unix systems, |
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4160 the standalone interpreter skips |
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4161 the first line of a chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>. |
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4162 Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs |
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4163 by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form, |
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4164 as in |
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|
4165 |
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|
4166 <pre> |
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|
4167 #!/usr/local/bin/lua |
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4168 </pre><p> |
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4169 (Of course, |
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4170 the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine. |
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4171 If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>, |
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4172 then |
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|
4173 |
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4174 <pre> |
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|
4175 #!/usr/bin/env lua |
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4176 </pre><p> |
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4177 is a more portable solution.) |
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|
4178 |
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4179 |
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4180 |
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4181 <h1>8 – <a name="8">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1> |
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4182 |
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4183 <p> |
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4184 Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program |
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4185 from Lua 5.2 to Lua 5.3. |
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4186 You can avoid some incompatibilities by compiling Lua with |
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4187 appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>). |
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4188 However, |
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4189 all these compatibility options will be removed in the future. |
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4190 |
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4191 |
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4192 <p> |
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4193 Lua versions can always change the C API in ways that |
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4194 do not imply source-code changes in a program, |
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4195 such as the numeric values for constants |
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4196 or the implementation of functions as macros. |
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4197 Therefore, |
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|
4198 you should not assume that binaries are compatible between |
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|
4199 different Lua versions. |
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|
4200 Always recompile clients of the Lua API when |
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4201 using a new version. |
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|
4202 |
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|
4203 |
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|
4204 <p> |
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|
4205 Similarly, Lua versions can always change the internal representation |
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|
4206 of precompiled chunks; |
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4207 precompiled chunks are not compatible between different Lua versions. |
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|
4208 |
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|
4209 |
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|
4210 <p> |
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|
4211 The standard paths in the official distribution may |
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4212 change between versions. |
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|
4213 |
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|
4214 |
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|
4215 |
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4216 <h2>8.1 – <a name="8.1">Changes in the Language</a></h2> |
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4217 <ul> |
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|
4218 |
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4219 <li> |
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4220 The main difference between Lua 5.2 and Lua 5.3 is the |
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|
4221 introduction of an integer subtype for numbers. |
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|
4222 Although this change should not affect "normal" computations, |
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|
4223 some computations |
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4224 (mainly those that involve some kind of overflow) |
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4225 can give different results. |
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|
4226 |
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|
4227 |
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4228 <p> |
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4229 You can fix these differences by forcing a number to be a float |
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|
4230 (in Lua 5.2 all numbers were float), |
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4231 in particular writing constants with an ending <code>.0</code> |
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|
4232 or using <code>x = x + 0.0</code> to convert a variable. |
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|
4233 (This recommendation is only for a quick fix |
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|
4234 for an occasional incompatibility; |
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|
4235 it is not a general guideline for good programming. |
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|
4236 For good programming, |
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|
4237 use floats where you need floats |
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|
4238 and integers where you need integers.) |
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|
4239 </li> |
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|
4240 |
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|
4241 <li> |
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|
4242 The conversion of a float to a string now adds a <code>.0</code> suffix |
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|
4243 to the result if it looks like an integer. |
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|
4244 (For instance, the float 2.0 will be printed as <code>2.0</code>, |
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|
4245 not as <code>2</code>.) |
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|
4246 You should always use an explicit format |
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|
4247 when you need a specific format for numbers. |
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|
4248 |
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|
4249 |
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|
4250 <p> |
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|
4251 (Formally this is not an incompatibility, |
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|
4252 because Lua does not specify how numbers are formatted as strings, |
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4253 but some programs assumed a specific format.) |
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|
4254 </li> |
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|
4255 |
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|
4256 <li> |
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|
4257 The generational mode for the garbage collector was removed. |
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|
4258 (It was an experimental feature in Lua 5.2.) |
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|
4259 </li> |
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|
4260 |
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|
4261 </ul> |
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|
4262 |
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|
4263 |
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|
4264 |
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|
4265 |
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|
4266 <h2>8.2 – <a name="8.2">Changes in the Libraries</a></h2> |
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|
4267 <ul> |
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|
4268 |
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|
4269 <li> |
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|
4270 The <code>bit32</code> library has been deprecated. |
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|
4271 It is easy to require a compatible external library or, |
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|
4272 better yet, to replace its functions with appropriate bitwise operations. |
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|
4273 (Keep in mind that <code>bit32</code> operates on 32-bit integers, |
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|
4274 while the bitwise operators in standard Lua operate on 64-bit integers.) |
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|
4275 </li> |
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|
4276 |
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|
4277 <li> |
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|
4278 The Table library now respects metamethods |
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|
4279 for setting and getting elements. |
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|
4280 </li> |
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|
4281 |
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|
4282 <li> |
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|
4283 The <a href="#pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs</code></a> iterator now respects metamethods and |
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|
4284 its <code>__ipairs</code> metamethod has been deprecated. |
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|
4285 </li> |
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|
4286 |
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|
4287 <li> |
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|
4288 Option names in <a href="#pdf-io.read"><code>io.read</code></a> do not have a starting '<code>*</code>' anymore. |
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|
4289 For compatibility, Lua will continue to ignore this character. |
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|
4290 </li> |
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|
4291 |
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|
4292 <li> |
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4293 The following functions were deprecated in the mathematical library: |
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|
4294 <code>atan2</code>, <code>cosh</code>, <code>sinh</code>, <code>tanh</code>, <code>pow</code>, |
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4295 <code>frexp</code>, and <code>ldexp</code>. |
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|
4296 You can replace <code>math.pow(x,y)</code> with <code>x^y</code>; |
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|
4297 you can replace <code>math.atan2</code> with <code>math.atan</code>, |
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|
4298 which now accepts one or two parameters; |
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|
4299 you can replace <code>math.ldexp(x,exp)</code> with <code>x * 2.0^exp</code>. |
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|
4300 For the other operations, |
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|
4301 you can either use an external library or |
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|
4302 implement them in Lua. |
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|
4303 </li> |
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|
4304 |
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4305 <li> |
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|
4306 The searcher for C loaders used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> |
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4307 changed the way it handles versioned names. |
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|
4308 Now, the version should come after the module name |
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|
4309 (as is usual in most other tools). |
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|
4310 For compatibility, that searcher still tries the old format |
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|
4311 if it cannot find an open function according to the new style. |
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|
4312 (Lua 5.2 already worked that way, |
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|
4313 but it did not document the change.) |
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|
4314 </li> |
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changeset
|
4315 |
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|
4316 </ul> |
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|
4317 |
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|
4318 |
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|
4319 |
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|
4320 |
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|
4321 <h2>8.3 – <a name="8.3">Changes in the API</a></h2> |
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4322 |
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4323 |
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4324 <ul> |
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4325 |
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4326 <li> |
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4327 Continuation functions now receive as parameters what they needed |
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4328 to get through <code>lua_getctx</code>, |
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4329 so <code>lua_getctx</code> has been removed. |
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4330 Adapt your code accordingly. |
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4331 </li> |
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4332 |
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4333 <li> |
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4334 Function <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> has an extra parameter, <code>strip</code>. |
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4335 Use 0 as the value of this parameter to get the old behavior. |
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4336 </li> |
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4337 |
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4338 <li> |
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4339 Functions to inject/project unsigned integers |
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4340 (<code>lua_pushunsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsigned</code>, <code>lua_tounsignedx</code>, |
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4341 <code>luaL_checkunsigned</code>, <code>luaL_optunsigned</code>) |
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4342 were deprecated. |
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4343 Use their signed equivalents with a type cast. |
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4344 </li> |
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4345 |
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4346 <li> |
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4347 Macros to project non-default integer types |
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4348 (<code>luaL_checkint</code>, <code>luaL_optint</code>, <code>luaL_checklong</code>, <code>luaL_optlong</code>) |
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4349 were deprecated. |
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4350 Use their equivalent over <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> with a type cast |
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4351 (or, when possible, use <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a> in your code). |
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4352 </li> |
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|
4353 |
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4354 </ul> |
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4355 |
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4356 |
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|
4357 |
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|
4358 |
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4359 <h1>9 – <a name="9">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1> |
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4360 |
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|
4361 <p> |
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4362 Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF. |
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4363 As usual in extended BNF, |
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4364 {A} means 0 or more As, |
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4365 and [A] means an optional A. |
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4366 (For operator precedences, see <a href="#3.4.8">§3.4.8</a>; |
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4367 for a description of the terminals |
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4368 Name, Numeral, |
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4369 and LiteralString, see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>.) |
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|
4370 |
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|
4371 |
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|
4372 |
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|
4373 |
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|
4374 <pre> |
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|
4375 |
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4376 chunk ::= block |
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|
4377 |
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4378 block ::= {stat} [retstat] |
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|
4379 |
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|
4380 stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ | |
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4381 varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist | |
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4382 functioncall | |
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|
4383 label | |
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|
4384 <b>break</b> | |
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|
4385 <b>goto</b> Name | |
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4386 <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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|
4387 <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4388 <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp | |
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|
4389 <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> | |
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|
4390 <b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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4391 <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> | |
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|
4392 <b>function</b> funcname funcbody | |
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4393 <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody | |
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4394 <b>local</b> namelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist] |
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|
4395 |
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|
4396 retstat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’] |
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|
4397 |
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|
4398 label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’ |
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|
4399 |
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|
4400 funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name] |
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|
4401 |
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|
4402 varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var} |
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|
4403 |
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|
4404 var ::= Name | prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ | prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name |
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|
4405 |
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4406 namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name} |
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|
4407 |
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4408 explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp} |
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|
4409 |
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|
4410 exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Numeral | LiteralString | ‘<b>...</b>’ | functiondef | |
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4411 prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp |
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4412 |
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4413 prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’ |
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4414 |
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4415 functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args |
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4416 |
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|
4417 args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ | tableconstructor | LiteralString |
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4418 |
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4419 functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody |
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4420 |
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4421 funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b> |
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4422 |
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4423 parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’ |
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|
4424 |
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|
4425 tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’ |
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4426 |
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4427 fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep] |
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4428 |
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4429 field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp |
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4430 |
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4431 fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’ |
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4432 |
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|
4433 binop ::= ‘<b>+</b>’ | ‘<b>-</b>’ | ‘<b>*</b>’ | ‘<b>/</b>’ | ‘<b>//</b>’ | ‘<b>^</b>’ | ‘<b>%</b>’ | |
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4434 ‘<b>&</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ | ‘<b>|</b>’ | ‘<b>>></b>’ | ‘<b><<</b>’ | ‘<b>..</b>’ | |
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4435 ‘<b><</b>’ | ‘<b><=</b>’ | ‘<b>></b>’ | ‘<b>>=</b>’ | ‘<b>==</b>’ | ‘<b>~=</b>’ | |
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4436 <b>and</b> | <b>or</b> |
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4437 |
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4438 unop ::= ‘<b>-</b>’ | <b>not</b> | ‘<b>#</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ |
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4439 |
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4440 </pre> |
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4441 |
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4442 <p> |
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4443 |
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4444 |
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4445 |
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4446 |
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4447 |
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4448 |
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4449 |
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4450 |
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4451 <HR> |
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4452 <SMALL CLASS="footer"> |
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4453 Last update: |
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4454 Fri Jan 16 00:58:20 BRST 2015 |
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4455 </SMALL> |
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4456 <!-- |
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4457 Last change: minor edit |
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4458 --> |
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4459 |
391
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4460 </body> |
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4461 </html> |